Äèïëîì: Slang, youth subcultures and rock music
SLANG,
YOUTH
SUBCULTURES
AND
ROCK MUSIC
CONTENTS
I. Introduction
II. Slang
1. Definition
2. Origins
3. Development of slang
4. Creators of slang
5. Sources
6. Linguistic processes forming slang
7. Characteristics of slang
8. Diffusion of slang
9. Uses of slang
10. Attitudes toward slang
11. Formation
12. Position in the Language
III. Youth Subcultures
1. The Concept of Youth Subcultures
2. The Formation of Youth Subcultures
3. The Increase of Youth Subculture
4. The Features of Youth Subcultures
5. The Types of Youth Subcultures
6. The Variety of Youth Subcultures
IV. Rock Music
1. What is rock?
2. Rock in the 1950s
3. Rock in the 1960s
4. Rock in the 1970s
5. Rock in the 1980s and '90s
V. Rock subcultures
1. Hippie
2. Punk
3. Mod
4. Skinhead
5. Goth
6. Industrial
7. Hardcore
8. Straight Edge
9. Grunge
10. Alternative
11. Metal
VI. Dictionary
1. Dictionary of youth slang during 1960-70’s
2. Dictionary of modern British slang
VII. Bibliography
INTRODUCTION
My graduation paper is devoted to the study of the topic “Slang, youth
subcultures and rock music.” This work consists of 5 parts. The first part is
about slang. What is it?
Slang, informal, nonstandard words and phrases, generally shorter lived
than the expressions of ordinary colloquial speech, and typically formed by
creative, often witty juxtapositions of words or images. Slang can be
contrasted with jargon (technical language of occupational or other groups) and
with argot or cant (secret vocabulary of underworld groups), but the
borderlines separating these categories from slang are greatly blurred, and
some writers use the terms cant,argot, and jargon in a general
way to include all the foregoing meanings.
Origins of slang
Slang tends to originate in subcultures within a society. Occupational groups
(for example, loggers, police, medical professionals, and computer specialists)
are prominent originators of both jargon and slang; other groups creating slang
include the armed forces, teenagers, racial minorities, ghetto residents, labor
unions, citizens-band radiobroadcasters, sports groups, drug addicts,
criminals, and even religious denominations (Episcopalians, for example,
produced spike, a High Church Anglican). Slang expressions often embody
attitudes and values of group members. They may thus contribute to a sense of
group identity and may convey to the listener information about the speaker's
background. Before an apt expression becomes slang, however, it must be widely
adopted by members of the subculture. At this point slang and jargon overlap
greatly. If the subculture has enough contact with the mainstream culture, its
figures of speech become slang expressions known to the whole society. For
example, cat (a sport), cool (aloof, stylish), Mr. Charley
(a white man), The Man (the law), and Uncle Tom (a meek black)
all originated in the predominantly black Harlem district of New York City and
have traveled far since their inception. Slang is thus generally not tied to
any geographic region within a country.
A slang expression may suddenly become widely used and as quickly dated (
23-skiddoo). It may become accepted as standard speech, either in its
original slang meaning (bus, from omnibus) or with an altered,
possibly tamed meaning (jazz, which originally had sexual connotations).
Some expressions have persisted for centuries as slang (booze for
alcoholic beverage). In the 20th century, mass media and rapid travel have
speeded up both the circulation and the demise of slang terms. Television and
novels have turned criminal cant into slang (five grand for $5000).
Changing social circumstances may stimulate the spread of slang. Drug-related
expressions (such as pot and marijuana) were virtually a secret
jargon in the 1940s; in the 1960s they were adopted by rebellious youth; and in
the 1970s and '80s they were widely known.
Uses of slang
In some cases slang may provide a needed name for an object or action (
walkie-talkie, a portable two-way radio; tailgating, driving too
close behind another vehicle), or it may offer an emotional outlet (buzz
off! for go away!) or a satirical or patronizing reference (smokey,
state highway trooper). It may provide euphemisms (john,head,can, and in
Britain, loo, all for toilet, itself originally a euphemism), and it
may allow its user to create a shock effect by using a pungent slang expression
in an unexpected context. Slang has provided myriad synonyms for parts of the
body (bean, head; schnozzle, nose), for money (
moola,bread,scratch), for food (grub,slop,garbage), and for
drunkenness (soused,stewed,plastered).
Formation of slang
Slang expressions are created by the same processes that affect ordinary speech.
Expressions may take form as metaphors, similes, and other figures of speech (
dead as a doornail). Words may acquire new meanings (cool,cat). A
narrow meaning may become generalized (fink, originally a strikebreaker,
later a betrayer or disappointer) or vice-versa (heap, a run-down car).
Words may be clipped, or abbreviated (mike, microphone), and acronyms
may gain currency (VIP,AWOL,snafu). A foreign suffix may be added (the
Yiddish and Russian -nik in beatnik) and foreign words adopted
(baloney, from Bologna). A change in meaning may make a vulgar word
acceptable (jazz) or an acceptable word vulgar (raspberry, a
sound imitating flatus; from raspberry tart in the rhyming slang of
Australia and Cockney London; Sometimes words are newly coined (oomph,
sex appeal, and later, energy or impact).
Position in the Language
Slang is one of the vehicles through which languages change and become renewed,
and its vigor and color enrich daily speech. Although it has gained
respectability in the 20th century, in the past it was often loudly condemned
as vulgar. Nevertheless, Shakespeare brought into acceptable usage such slang
terms as hubbub,to bump, and to dwindle, and 20th-century
writers have used slang brilliantly to convey character and ambience. Slang
appears at all times and in all languages. A person's head was kapala
(dish) in Sanskrit, testa (pot) in Latin; testa later became the
standard Latin word for head. Among Western languages, English, French,
Spanish, Italian, German, Yiddish, Romanian, and Romani (Gypsy) are
particularly rich in slang.
The second part of my graduation paper is about youth subcultures.
"Subcultures are meaning systems, modes of expression or life styles
developed by groups in subordinate structural positions in response to
dominant meaning systems, and which reflect their attempt to solve structural
contradictions rising from the wider societal context"
The next part is about rock music in the 1950s – ‘90s. What is rock?
Rock Music, group of related music styles that have dominated popular
music in the West since about 1955. Rock music began in the United States, but
it has influenced and in turn been shaped by a broad field of cultures and
musical traditions, including gospel music, the blues, country-and-western
music, classical music, folk music, electronic music, and the popular music of
Asia, Africa, and Latin America. In addition to its use as a broad designation,
the term rock music commonly refers to music styles after 1959
predominantly influenced by white musicians. Other major rock music styles
include rock and roll the first genre of the music; and rhythm-and-blues
music, influenced mainly by black American musicians. Each of these major
genres encompasses a variety of substyles, such as heavy metal, punk,
alternative, and grunge. While innovations in rock music have often occurred in
regional centers—such as New York City, Kingston, Jamaica, and Liverpool,
England—the influence of rock music is now felt worldwide.
The fourth part is about different rock subcultures such as hippie, punk,
skinhead, goth, hardcore, grunge, heavy metal and others. I discribed their
fashion, style, bands, music, lyrics, political views.
And the last part contains two dictionaries. The first dictionary is about
youth slang during 1960 –70’s and the second dictionary consists of modern
British slang.
Slang ... an attempt of common humanity to escape from bald literalism, and
express itself illimitably ... the wholesome fermentation or eductation of
those processes eternally active in language, by which froth and specks are
thrown up, mostly to pass away, though occasionally to settle and permanently
crystallise.
Walt Whitman, 1885
I. SLANG
1. Definition
Main Entry: 1slang
Pronunciation: 'sla[ng]
Function: noun
Etymology: origin unknown
Date: 1756
1 : language peculiar to a particular group: as a : ARGOT b : JARGON 2
2 : an informal nonstandard vocabulary composed typically of coinages,
arbitrarily changed words, and extravagant, forced, or facetious figures of
speech
- slang adjective
- slang·i·ly /'sla[ng]-&-lE/ adverb
- slang·i·ness /'sla[ng]-E-n&s/ noun
- slangy /'sla[ng]-E/ adjective
Main Entry: 2slang
Date: 1828
intransitive senses : to use slang or vulgar abuse
transitive senses : to abuse with harsh or coarse language
Main Entry: rhyming slang
Function: noun
Date: 1859
: slang in which the word intended is replaced by a word or phrase that
rhymes with it (as loaf of bread for head) or the first part of
the phrase (as loaf for head)
Source: Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary
Slang
nonstandard vocabulary composed of words or senses characterized primarily by
connotations of extreme informality and usually by a currency not limited to
a particular region. It is composed typically of coinages or arbitrarily
changed words, clipped or shortened forms, extravagant, forced, or facetious
figures of speech, or verbal novelties.
Slang consists of the words and expressions that have escaped from the cant
, jargon and argot (and to a lesser extent from dialectal,
nonstandard, and taboo speech) of specific subgroups of society so that they
are known and used by an appreciable percentage of the general population, even
though the words and expressions often retain some associations with the
subgroups that originally used and popularized them. Thus, slang is a middle
ground for words and expressions that have become too popular to be any longer
considered as part of the more restricted categories, but that are not yet (and
may never become) acceptable or popular enough to be considered informal or
standard. (Compare the slang "hooker" and the standard "prostitute.")
Under the terms of such a definition, "cant" comprises the restricted,
non-technical words and expressions of any particular group, as an
occupational, age, ethnic, hobby, or special-interest group. (Cool, uptight,
do your thing were youth cant of the late 1960s before they became slang.)
"Jargon" is defined as the restricted, technical, or shoptalk words and
expressions of any particular group, as an occupational, trade, scientific,
artistic, criminal, or other group. (Finals used by printers and by
students, Fannie May by money men, preemie by obstetricians
were jargon before they became slang.) "Argot" is merely the combined
cant and jargon of thieves, criminals, or any other underworld group. (Hit
used by armed robbers; scam by corporate confidence men.)
Slang fills a necessary niche in all languages, occupying a middle ground
between the standard and informal words accepted by the general public and the
special words and expressions known only to comparatively small social
subgroups. It can serve as a bridge or a barrier, either helping both old and
new words that have been used as "insiders' " terms by a specific group of
people to enter the language of the general public or, on the other hand,
preventing them from doing so. Thus, for many words, slang is a testing ground
that finally proves them to be generally useful, appealing, and acceptable
enough to become standard or informal. For many other words, slang is a testing
ground that shows them to be too restricted in use, not as appealing as
standard synonyms, or unnecessary, frivolous, faddish, or unacceptable for
standard or informal speech. For still a third group of words and expressions,
slang becomes not a final testing ground that either accepts or rejects them
for general use but becomes a vast limbo, a permanent holding ground, an area
of speech that a word never leaves. Thus, during various times in history,
American slang has provided cowboy, blizzard, okay, racketeer, phone, gas,
and movie for standard or informal speech. It has tried and finally
rejected conbobberation (disturbance), krib (room or
apartment), lucifer (match), tomato (girl), and fab
(fabulous) from standard or informal speech. It has held other words such as
bones (dice), used since the 14th century, and beat it (go away),
used since the 16th century, in a permanent grasp, neither passing them on to
standard or informal speech nor rejecting them from popular, long-term use.
Slang words cannot be distinguished from other words by sound or meaning.
Indeed, all slang words were once cant, jargon, argot, dialect, nonstandard, or
taboo. For example, the American slang to neck (to kiss and caress) was
originally student cant; flattop (an aircraft carrier) was originally
navy jargon; and pineapple (a bomb or hand grenade) was originally
criminal argot. Such words did not, of course, change their sound or meaning
when they became slang. Many slang words, such as blizzard, mob, movie,
phone, gas, and others, have become informal or standard and, of course,
did not change in sound or meaning when they did so. In fact, most slang words
are homonyms of standard words, spelled and pronounced just like their standard
counterparts, as for example (American slang), cabbage (money),
cool (relaxed), and pot (marijuana). Of course, the words
cabbage, cool, and pot sound alike in their ordinary standard use
and in their slang use. Each word sounds just as appealing or unappealing, dull
or colourful in its standard as in its slang use. Also, the meanings of
cabbage and money, cool and relaxed, pot and marijuana
are the same, so it cannot be said that the connotations of slang words are any
more colourful or racy than the meanings of standard words.
All languages, countries, and periods of history have slang. This is true
because they all have had words with varying degrees of social acceptance and
popularity.
All segments of society use some slang, including the most educated, cultivated
speakers and writers. In fact, this is part of the definition of slang. For
example, George Washington used redcoat (British soldier); Winston
Churchill used booze (liquor); and Lyndon B. Johnson used cool it
(calm down, shut up).
The same linguistic processes are used to create and popularize slang as are
used to create and popularize all other words. That is, all words are created
and popularized in the same general ways; they are labeled slang only
according to their current social acceptance, long after creation and
popularization.
Slang is not the language of the underworld, nor does most of it necessarily
come from the underworld. The main sources of slang change from period to
period. Thus, in one period of American slang, frontiersmen, cowboys,
hunters, and trappers may have been the main source; during some parts of the
1920s and '30s the speech of baseball players and criminals may have been the
main source; at other times, the vocabulary of jazz musicians, soldiers, or
college students may have been the main source.
To fully understand slang, one must remember that a word's use, popularity, and
acceptability can change. Words can change in social level, moving in any
direction. Thus, some standard words of William Shakespeare's day are found
only in certain modern-day British dialects or in the dialect of the southern
United States. Words that are taboo in one era (e.g., stomach, thigh)
can become accepted, standard words in a later era. Language is dynamic, and at
any given time hundreds, and perhaps thousands, of words and expressions are in
the process of changing from one level to another, of becoming more acceptable
or less acceptable, of becoming more popular or less popular.
2. Origins
Slang tends to originate in subcultures within a society. Occupational groups
(for example, loggers, police, medical professionals, and computer specialists)
are prominent originators of both jargon and slang; other groups creating slang
include the armed forces, teenagers, racial minorities, ghetto residents, labor
unions, citizens-band radiobroadcasters, sports groups, drug addicts,
criminals, and even religious denominations (Episcopalians, for example,
produced spike, a High Church Anglican). Slang expressions often embody
attitudes and values of group members. They may thus contribute to a sense of
group identity and may convey to the listener information about the speaker’s
background. Before an apt expression becomes slang, however, it must be widely
adopted by members of the subculture. At this point slang and jargon overlap
greatly. If the subculture has enough contact with the mainstream culture, its
figures of speech become slang expressions known to the whole society. For
example, cat (a sport), cool (aloof, stylish), Mr. Charley
(a white man), The Man (the law), and Uncle Tom (a meek black)
all originated in the predominantly black Harlem district of New York City and
have traveled far since their inception. Slang is thus generally not tied to
any geographic region within a country.
A slang expression may suddenly become widely used and as quickly date (
23-skiddoo). It may become accepted as standard speech, either in its
original slang meaning (bus, from omnibus) or with an altered,
possibly tamed meaning (jazz, which originally had sexual connotations).
Some expressions have persisted for centuries as slang (booze for
alcoholic beverage). In the 20th century, mass media and rapid travel have
speeded up both the circulation and the demise of slang terms. Television and
novels have turned criminal cant into slang (five grand for $5000).
Changing social circumstances may stimulate the spread of slang. Drug-related
expressions (such as pot and marijuana) were virtually a secret
jargon in the 1940s; in the 1960s they were adopted by rebellious youth; and in
the 1970s and ’80s they were widely known.
3. Development of slang
Slang emanates from conflicts in values, sometimes superficial, often
fundamental. When an individual applies language in a new way to express
hostility, ridicule, or contempt, often with sharp wit, he may be creating
slang, but the new expression will perish unless it is picked up by others. If
the speaker is a member of a group that finds that his creation projects the
emotional reaction of its members toward an idea, person, or social
institution, the expression will gain currency according to the unanimity of
attitude within the group. A new slang term is usually widely used in a
subculture before it appears in the dominant culture. Thus slang--e.g.,
"sucker," "honkey," "shave-tail," "jerk"--expresses the attitudes, not always
derogatory, of one group or class toward the values of another. Slang sometimes
stems from within the group, satirizing or burlesquing its own values,
behaviour, and attitudes; e.g., "shotgun wedding," "cake eater,"
"greasy spoon." Slang, then, is produced largely by social forces rather than
by an individual speaker or writer who, single-handed (like Horace Walpole, who
coined "serendipity" more than 200 years ago), creates and establishes a word
in the language. This is one reason why it is difficult to determine the origin
of slang terms.
4. Creators of slang
Civilized society tends to divide into a dominant culture and various
subcultures that flourish within the dominant framework. The subcultures show
specialized linguistic phenomena, varying widely in form and content, that
depend on the nature of the groups and their relation to each other and to the
dominant culture. The shock value of slang stems largely from the verbal
transfer of the values of a subculture to diametrically opposed values in the
dominant culture. Names such as fuzz, pig, fink, bull, and dick for policemen
were not created by officers of the law. (The humorous "dickless tracy,"
however, meaning a policewoman, was coined by male policemen.)
Occupational groups are legion, and while in most respects they identify with
the dominant culture, there is just enough social and linguistic hostility to
maintain group solidarity. Terms such as scab, strike-breaker, company-man,
and goon were highly charged words in the era in which labour began to
organize in the United States; they are not used lightly even today, though
they have been taken into the standard language.
In addition to occupational and professional groups, there are many other
types of subcultures that supply slang. These include sexual deviants,
narcotic addicts, ghetto groups, institutional populations, agricultural
subsocieties, political organizations, the armed forces, Gypsies, and sports
groups of many varieties. Some of the most fruitful sources of slang are the
subcultures of professional criminals who have migrated to the New World
since the 16th century. Old-time thieves still humorously refer to themselves
as FFV--First Families of Virginia.
In criminal subcultures, pressure applied by the dominant culture intensifies
the internal forces already at work, and the argot forming there emphasizes
the values, attitudes, and techniques of the subculture. Criminal groups seem
to evolve about this specialized argot, and both the subculture and its slang
expressions proliferate in response to internal and external pressures.
5. Sources
Most subcultures tend to draw words and phrases from the contiguous language
(rather than creating many new words) and to give these established terms new
and special meanings; some borrowings from foreign languages, including the
American Indian tongues, are traditional. The more learned occupations or
professions like medicine, law, psychology, sociology, engineering, and
electronics tend to create true neologisms, often based on Greek or Latin
roots, but these are not major sources for slang, though nurses and medical
students adapt some medical terminology to their slang, and air force
personnel and some other branches of the armed services borrow freely from
engineering and electronics.
6. Linguistic processes forming slang
The processes by which words become slang are the same as those by which
other words in the language change their form or meaning or both. Some of
these are the employment of metaphor, simile, folk etymology, distortion of
sounds in words, generalization, specialization, clipping, the use of
acronyms, elevation and degeneration, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole,
borrowings from foreign languages, and the play of euphemism against taboo.
The English word trip is an example of a term that has undergone both
specialization and generalization. It first became specialized to mean a
psychedelic experience resulting from the drug LSD. Subsequently, it
generalized again to mean any experience on any drug, and beyond that to any
type of "kicks" from anything. Clipping is exemplified by the use of "grass"
from "laughing grass," a term for marijuana. "Funky," once a very low term
for body odour, has undergone elevation among jazz buffs to signify "the
best"; "fanny," on the other hand, once simply a girl's name, is currently a
degenerated term that refers to the buttocks (in England, it has further
degenerated into a taboo word for the female genitalia). There is also some
actual coinage of slang terms.
7. Characteristics of slang
Psychologically, most good slang harks back to the stage in human culture when
animism was a worldwide religion. At that time, it was believed that all
objects had two aspects, one external and objective that could be perceived by
the senses, the other imperceptible (except to gifted individuals) but
identical with what we today would call the "real" object. Human survival
depended upon the manipulation of all "real" aspects of life--hunting,
reproduction, warfare, weapons, design of habitations, nature of clothing or
decoration, etc.--through control or influence upon the animus, or
imperceptible phase of reality. This influence was exerted through many aspects
of sympathetic magic, one of the most potent being the use of language. Words,
therefore, had great power, because they evoked the things to which they
referred.
Civilized cultures and their languages retain many remnants of animism,
largely on the unconscious level. In Western languages, the metaphor owes its
power to echoes of sympathetic magic, and slang utilizes certain attributes
of the metaphor to evoke images too close for comfort to "reality." For
example, to refer to a woman as a "broad" is automatically to increase her
girth in an area in which she may fancy herself as being thin. Her reaction
may, thus, be one of anger and resentment, if she happens to live in a
society in which slim hips are considered essential to feminine beauty.
Slang, then, owes much of its power to shock to the superimposition of images
that are incongruous with images (or values) of others, usually members of
the dominant culture. Slang is most popular when its imagery develops
incongruity bordering on social satire. Every slang word, however, has its
own history and reasons for popularity. When conditions change, the term may
change in meaning, be adopted into the standard language, or continue to be
used as slang within certain enclaves of the population. Nothing is flatter
than dead slang. In 1910, for instance, "Oh you kid" and "23-skiddoo" were
quite stylish phrases in the U.S. but they have gone with the hobble skirt.
Children, however, unaware of anachronisms, often revive old slang under a
barrage of older movies rerun on television.
Some slang becomes respectable when it loses its edge; "spunk," "fizzle,"
"spent," "hit the spot," "jazz," "funky," and "p.o.'d," once thought to be
too indecent for feminine ears, are now family words. Other slang survives
for centuries, like "bones" for dice (Chaucer), "beat it" for run away
(Shakespeare), "duds" for clothes, and "booze" for liquor (Dekker). These
words must have been uttered as slang long before appearing in print, and
they have remained slang ever since. Normally, slang has both a high birth
and death rate in the dominant culture, and excessive use tends to dull the
lustre of even the most colourful and descriptive words and phrases. The rate
of turnover in slang words is undoubtedly encouraged by the mass media, and a
term must be increasingly effective to survive.
While many slang words introduce new concepts, some of the most effective slang
provides new expressions--fresh, satirical, shocking--for established concepts,
often very respectable ones. Sound is sometimes used as a basis for this type
of slang, as, for example, in various phonetic distortions (e.g., pig
Latin terms). It is also used in rhyming slang, which employs a fortunate
combination of both sound and imagery. Thus, gloves are "turtledoves" (the
gloved hands suggesting a pair of billing doves), a girl is a "twist and twirl"
(the movement suggesting a girl walking), and an insulting imitation of flatus,
produced by blowing air between the tip of the protruded tongue and the upper
lip, is the "raspberry," cut back from "raspberry tart." Most slang, however,
depends upon incongruity of imagery, conveyed by the lively connotations of a
novel term applied to an established concept. Slang is not all of equal
quality, a considerable body of it reflecting a simple need to find new terms
for common ones, such as the hands, feet, head, and other parts of the body.
Food, drink, and sex also involve extensive slang vocabulary. Strained or
synthetically invented slang lacks verve, as can be seen in the desperate
efforts of some sportswriters to avoid mentioning the word baseball--e.g.,
a batter does not hit a baseball but rather "swats the horsehide," "plasters the
pill," "hefts the old apple over the fence," and so on.
The most effective slang operates on a more sophisticated level and often
tells something about the thing named, the person using the term, and the
social matrix against which it is used. Pungency may increase when full
understanding of the term depends on a little inside information or knowledge
of a term already in use, often on the slang side itself. For example, the
term Vatican roulette (for the rhythm system of birth control) would have
little impact if the expression Russian roulette were not already in wide
usage.
8. Diffusion of slang
Slang invades the dominant culture as it seeps out of various subcultures.
Some words fall dead or lie dormant in the dominant culture for long periods.
Others vividly express an idea already latent in the dominant culture and
these are immediately picked up and used. Before the advent of mass media,
such terms invaded the dominant culture slowly and were transmitted largely
by word of mouth. Thus a term like snafu, its shocking power softened with
the explanation "situation normal, all fouled up," worked its way gradually
from the military in World War II by word of mouth (because the media largely
shunned it) into respectable circles. Today, however, a sportscaster, news
reporter, or comedian may introduce a lively new word already used by an in-
group into millions of homes simultaneously, giving it almost instant
currency. For example, the term uptight was first used largely by criminal
narcotic addicts to indicate the onset of withdrawal distress when drugs are
denied. Later, because of intense journalistic interest in the drug scene, it
became widely used in the dominant culture to mean anxiety or tension
unrelated to drug use. It kept its form but changed its meaning slightly.
Other terms may change their form or both form and meaning, like "one for the
book" (anything unusual or unbelievable). Sportswriters in the U.S. borrowed
this term around 1920 from the occupational language of then legal
bookmakers, who lined up at racetracks in the morning ("the morning line" is
still figuratively used on every sports page) to take bets on the afternoon
races. Newly arrived bookmakers went to the end of the line, and any bettor
requesting unusually long odds was motioned down the line with the phrase,
"That's one for the end book." The general public dropped the "end" as
meaningless, but old-time gamblers still retain it. Slang spreads through
many other channels, such as popular songs, which, for the initiate, are
often rich in double entendre.
When subcultures are structurally tight, little of their language leaks out.
Thus the Mafia, in more than a half-century of powerful criminal activity in
America, has contributed little slang. When subcultures weaken, contacts with
the dominant culture multiply, diffusion occurs, and their language appears
widely as slang. Criminal narcotic addicts, for example, had a tight
subculture and a highly secret argot in the 1940s; now their terms are used
freely by middle-class teenagers, even those with no real knowledge of drugs.
9. Uses of slang
In some cases slang may provide a needed name for an object or action (
walkie-talkie, a portable two-way radio; tailgating, driving too
close behind another vehicle), or it may offer an emotional outlet (buzz
off! for go away!) or a satirical or patronizing reference (smokey,
state highway trooper). It may provide euphemisms (john, head, can, and
in Britain, loo, all for toilet, itself originally a euphemism), and it
may allow its user to create a shock effect by using a pungent slang expression
in an unexpected context. Slang has provided myriad synonyms for parts of the
body (bean, head; schnozzle, nose), for money (moola, bread,
scratch), for food (grub, slop, garbage), and for drunkenness (
soused, stewed, plastered).
Slang is used for many purposes, but generally it expresses a certain emotional
attitude; the same term may express diametrically opposed attitudes when used
by different people. Many slang terms are primarily derogatory, though they may
also be ambivalent when used in intimacy or affection. Some crystallize or
bolster the self-image or promote identification with a class or in-group.
Others flatter objects, institutions, or persons but may be used by different
people for the opposite effect. "Jesus freak," originally used as ridicule, was
adopted as a title by certain street evangelists. Slang sometimes insults or
shocks when used directly; some terms euphemize a sensitive concept, though
obvious or excessive euphemism may break the taboo more effectively than a less
decorous term. Some slang words are essential because there are no words in the
standard language expressing exactly the same meaning; e.g.,
"freak-out," "barn-storm," "rubberneck," and the noun "creep." At the other
extreme, multitudes of words, vague in meaning, are used simply as fads.
There are many other uses to which slang is put, according to the individual
and his place in society. Since most slang is used on the spoken level, by
persons who probably are unaware that it is slang, the choice of terms
naturally follows a multiplicity of unconscious thought patterns. When used
by writers, slang is much more consciously and carefully chosen to achieve a
specific effect. Writers, however, seldom invent slang.
It has been claimed that slang is created by ingenious individuals to freshen
the language, to vitalize it, to make the language more pungent and
picturesque, to increase the store of terse and striking words, or to provide
a vocabulary for new shades of meaning. Most of the originators and purveyors
of slang, however, are probably not conscious of these noble purposes and do
not seem overly concerned about what happens to their language.
10. Attitudes toward slang
With the rise of naturalistic writing demanding realism, slang began to creep
into English literature even though the schools waged warfare against it, the
pulpit thundered against it, and many women who aspired to gentility and
refinement banished it from the home. It flourished underground, however, in
such male sanctuaries as lodges, poolrooms, barbershops, and saloons.
By 1925 a whole new generation of U.S. and European naturalistic writers was
in revolt against the Victorian restraints that had caused even Mark Twain to
complain, and today any writer may use slang freely, especially in fiction
and drama. It has become an indispensable tool in the hands of master
satirists, humorists, and journalists. Slang is now socially acceptable, not
just because it is slang but because, when used with skill and
discrimination, it adds a new and exciting dimension to language. At the same
time, it is being seriously studied by linguists and other social scientists
as a revealing index to the culture that produces and uses it.
11. Formation
Slang expressions are created by the same processes that affect ordinary speech.
Expressions may take form as metaphors, similes, and other figures of speech (
dead as a doornail). Words may acquire new meanings (cool, cat). A
narrow meaning may become generalized (fink, originally a strikebreaker,
later a betrayer or disappointer) or vice-versa (heap, a run-down car).
Words may be clipped, or abbreviated (mike, microphone), and acronyms
may gain currency (VIP, awol, snafu). A foreign suffix may be added (the
Yiddish and Russian -nik in beatnik) and foreign words adopted
(baloney, from Bologna). A change in meaning may make a vulgar word
acceptable (jazz) or an acceptable word vulgar (raspberry, a
sound imitating flatus; from raspberry tart in the rhyming slang of
Australia and Cockney London; Sometimes words are newly coined (oomph,
sex appeal, and later, energy or impact).
12. Position in the Language
Slang is one of the vehicles through which languages change and become renewed,
and its vigor and color enrich daily speech. Although it has gained
respectability in the 20th century, in the past it was often loudly condemned
as vulgar. Nevertheless, Shakespeare brought into acceptable usage such slang
terms as hubbub, to bump, and to dwindle, and 20th-century
writers have used slang brilliantly to convey character and ambience. Slang
appears at all times and in all languages. A person’s head was kapala
(dish) in Sanskrit, testa (pot) in Latin; testa later became the
standard Latin word for head. Among Western languages, English, French,
Spanish, Italian, German, Yiddish, Romanian, and Romany (Gypsy) are
particularly rich in slang.
II. YOUTH SUBCULTURES
Main Entry: sub·cul·ture
Pronunciation: 's&b-"k&l-ch&r
Function: noun
Date: 1886
1 a : a culture (as of bacteria) derived from another culture b :
an act or instance of producing a subculture
2 : an ethnic, regional, economic, or social group exhibiting
characteristic patterns of behavior sufficient to distinguish it from others
within an embracing culture or society <a criminal subculture>
- sub·cul·tur·al /-'k&lch-r&l, -'k&l-ch&-/ adjective
- sub·cul·tur·al·ly adverb
- subculture transitive verb
Source: Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary
1. The Concept of Youth Subcultures
The word 'culture' suggests that there is a separate entity within the larger
society with which the larger society must contend. A subculture group is a
social-cultural formation that exists as a sort of island or enclave within the
larger society. One definition of subculture is: "subcultures are meaning
systems, modes of expression or life styles developed by groups in subordinate
structural positions in response to dominant meaning systems, and which reflect
their attempt to solve structural contradictions rising from the wider societal
context" (Michael Brake). For Brake membership of a subculture necessarily
involves membership of a class culture and the subculture may be an extension
of, or in opposition to, the class culture. The significance of subcultures for
their participants is that they offer a solution to structural dislocations
through the establishment of an achieved identity - the selection of certain
elements of style outside of those associated with the ascribed identity
offered by work, home, or school. He suggests that the majority of youth pass
through life without significant involvement in deviant subcultures. He says
that the role of youth culture involves offering symbolic elements that are
used by youth to construct an identity outside the restraints of class and
education.
Snejina Michailova, in Exploring Subcultural Specificity in Socialist and
Postsocialist Organisations, presents the following definitions of
subculture: (1) Subcultures are distinct clusters of understandings, behaviors,
and cultural forms that identify groups of people in the organization. They
differ noticeably from the common organizational culture in which they are
embedded, either intensifying its understandings and practices or deviating
from them" (Trice and Beyer). (2) Subculture are a "...compromise solution
between two contradictory needs: the need to create and express autonomy and
difference and the need to maintain identifications to the culture within whose
boundaries the subculture develops" (Cohen)." Snejina adds: "Subcultures posses
their own meanings, their own way of coping with rules, accepted to be valid
for the organization, their own values structured in specific hierarchies, they
develop their own categorical language for classifying events around them, they
create their own symbolic order." A key element in subcultures is
sharedness - the sharing of a common set of perspectives.
The common elements of a subculture include: (1) relatively unique values and
norms, (2) a special slang not shared with society, (3) separate channels of
communication, (4) unique styles and fads, (5) a sense of primary group
belonging seen in the use of 'us' and 'them', (6) a hierarchy of social
patterns that clarify the criteria for prestige and leadership, (7)
receptivity to the charisma of leaders and (8) gratification of special unmet
needs.
To suggest that there is a youth subculture requires proof that they are a
distinct group with their own set of characteristic. This is true in terms of
(1) aesthetics: youth have a distinct style and taste that is expressed in
their personal appearance and an artistic flair expressed in spontaneity and
creativity. Their values include an emphasis on community, a sense of belonging
and on collectively shared ecstasy. Youth culture also exists as shown in their
distinct (2) morality: there is a strong emphasis on liberation from
all restraints and on a guiltless pursuit of pleasure. In the area of sexuality
we find an aspect of life where the individual is to experience themselves and
others with complete freedom and honesty. There is a combination of both
individualism (youth culture affirms the autonomy of each individual who has
the 'right' to do their own thing) and collectivism (many individuals
are fused into a common experience). The search for identity is at the core.
2. The Formation of Youth Subcultures
A subculture group forms when the larger culture fails to meet the needs of a
particular group of people. They offer different patterns of living values and
behaviour norms, but there is dependence on the larger culture for general
goals and direction (unlike counter-cultures which seek to destroy or
change the larger culture). Subcultures try to compensate for the failure of
the larger culture to provide adequate status, acceptance and identity. In the
youth subculture, youth find their age-related needs met. It is a way-station
in the life of the individual - it is as if society permits the individual to
'drop out' for a period of years and is even willing to subsidise the phase.
However, for some people the way-station becomes the place of permanent
settlement. This is when a group moves towards becoming a counter-culture.
Industrialisation and the related social-psychological factors of modern
industrial societies caused the phenomenon of youth subcultures for the
following reasons: (1) The deepening of the division of labour separated the
family from the processes of modern production and administration. Youth is a
further extension of the same process of institutional separation or
differentiation. With the industrial revolution there arose an institutional
structure that 'allowed room' for youth. (2) With this division of labour
there came an increasing specialisation which led to a lengthening of the
period of time that the individual needed to spend in the educational system.
Youth were separated from the process of production by child labour laws. (3)
The rise of modern medicine and nutrition led to the sheer numbers of youth
increasing. (4) The sheer complexity of modern society has meant that
different individuals lead vastly different lives. When adults disappear into
a strange world, reappearing for limited contact with youth, a degree of
estrangement results. This trend has caused youth to become autonomous,
establishing norms and patterns of their own that are independent from the
adult world. (5) Socialisation in modern societies is characterised by high
degrees of discontinuity and inconsistency. This produces individuals who are
not well integrated and a period of time is needed where they can complete
the process of socialisation - a time to find themselves, hence adolescence.
A number of different theories have been suggested for the formation of youth
subcultures:
A. A Natural Part of the Journey from Childhood to Adulthood
As discussed under the youth culture section, there is a journey from
childhood to adulthood. Youth ban together for support into groups that
function as half-way houses between the world of being a child and the world
of being an adult. Here youth subcultures are about survival in an otherwise
hostile world.
B. A Class Struggle Expressed Through The Use of Style
In the resistance through rituals understanding of culture the members are
always striving against dominant classes; older generations and against those
who conform. They are always trying to find ways to disrupt the ideological and
generational oppression in order to crease spaces for themselves. The
resistance through personal expression is often contrasted against the
conformity of the ‘normals’. In many writings youth are counterposed against
adults - they hate and avoid adults and oppose them because they represent
authority. A dichotomy was created between, for example: Goths and Normals
where Goths avoid and hate adults, oppose adults who represent authority and
are deemed to resist; while Normals relate well to adults, consult adults with
problems and are deemed to conform. Linda Forrester in a web article speaks of
youth generated culture where visual communication is predominant and
language is subservient to visual means of communications. Visual cultures
include: skateboarders; graffiti artists; street dancers and street machiners
which communicate through movement or gesture. These are periphery groups
empowered by the space that they have created through visual representation.
Their cultural production is recognised by mainstream culture and in that
recognition they are given power to speak. The process empowers them and
provides identity. Group control is managed through the visual display of
creative talent, ie, skaters out-skate each other, graffiti artists out-image
each other; street machines out-car each other; street dancers fight each other
through art. In mainstream culture discourse is primarily verbal but in youth
generated culture discourse is primarily visual. It is through style that
criticism of performance and image occurs and it is through criticism that
higher forms of visual representation occur.
C. A Rebellion Against the Dominant Culture Using Shock Tactics
Young people in creating subcultures are setting out to shock. One of the key
ways in which they shock is through the clothes they wear. Oppositional
subcultures (ie. Punk and Hip-hop subcultures) are movements dedicated to
rebellion against the dominant culture.
D. A Construction of New Identities Based on Individualisation
The new ideas in youth culture suggest a more positive view of the role of youth
in society. Youth is viewed as an active category - a sociocultural view of
youth is introduced where youth are involved in the development of society
through their creations. Youth must be allowed to exercise the power to bring
change - they do so in their cultural expressions all the time. Youth culture
is about individualism - an expanding degree of separation of individuals from
their traditional ties and restrictions. As people have 'broken free' they feel
a need to look for fixing points - material with which to form a new social and
cultural identity. The motivation behind participating in the activities of a
subculture involves coping with suffering (the sense of loss at being cut off
from the past and hence one’s identity), ie. alienation, loneliness,
meaningless, etc. The motive is to be reinstated into responsive and
responsible relationships. The individualisation has produced post-traditional
communities - because they are focussed on the individual they are looser and
more fluid than traditional communities but they are still settings in which
youth find self-expression and identity. The subculture is an identity-related
substitute for the lost collective world of modernism but with the
disintegration of tradition, subcultures has lost their identity-creating
potential. There is a now a pluralisation of needs and interests that result
from the process of individualisation and culturalisation - so culture ruptures
are normal. Not only do these ruptures affect all social classes, but the
traditional generational gap is also blurred. Alongside individualisation there
is a tendency towards self-organisation - probably the new communities will be
organised around the needs of the individuals and their interests. Douglas
Rushkoff, in Playing the Future, suggests that as the world has become
increasingly complex the children have adapted to its demands, and they have
the ability to navigate it's terrain - adults must learn from them!
A whole new approach to the field of subculture theory is emerging. It is an
approach that is critical of the subculture theory approach popular since the
seventies.
3. The Increase of Youth Subcultures
A number of factors account for the increase in the number of subculture
groups in society:
A. The Size of the Society
Charles Kraft in Anthropology for Christian Witness says: "larger
societies will also develop more subgroupings. These subgroupings are usually
referred to as subcultures."
B. The Rate of Change in the Society
In societies with slow pace of social change the transition to adulthood goes
smoothly and youth are similar to their parents. There is a unity and a
solidarity between the coming generation and the generation of parents. In
societies undergoing rapid social change a smooth transition to adulthood is
no longer possible and there is a strong dissimilarity with parent
generations. Here an individual cannot reply on their parents identity
patterns as they no longer fit into the social context. Because youth realise
that they cannot learn from past experiences, they search for new identities
that are relevant. In fact, the greater the change in a society the more
intense and stronger the subcultures as people identify more with their
subculture in order to find identity and security.
C. The Globalisation of the Society
The rate at which cultural objects and ideas are transmitted in large parts
of the world today is a significant factor in the number of youth subculture
groups that are identified. Where a society is connected to the global
village through communication technology, they experience simultaneous
pressures to unity and fragmentation.
D. The Position of Youth in the Society
People who are marginalised or deprived make their sense of loss known as
they resist to the dominant culture. Where youth are connected to the center
of the dominant culture they do not need to rebel or form counter-cultural
groups.
E. The Generational Size in the Society
The size of a generation impacts on youth subcultures because the overall age
structure within a society influences the social, economical and political
make up of age groups. When the number of youth entering the market place
drops, then youth as a portion of the total labour force also falls. This
decline in youth as a market force, both as consumers and producers will
significantly alter the social and political visibility of youth.
4. The Features of Youth Subcultures
Looking at various writings on youth culture the following features are noted
(some of which may well overlap): style; language, music, class, rebellion,
gender, art, rebellion, relationship to the dominant culture, degree of
openness to outsiders, urban/rural living, etc. The following insights were
gained from class interaction on youth subculture groups:
A. Class and Youth Subcultures
It was found that within different socio-economic groups subculture groups
take on different characteristics and are based on different factors. Within
the working class communities youth tend to have more interaction with
parents and therefore don’t seem to rebel as much against their parents as
youth in middle to upper classes. Youth subcultures in working class
communities will show a greater among of gang activity, with subculture
groups being defined around gangs in some areas. In middle class areas youth
seem to form their subcultures around interests, such as sports.
B. Music and Youth Subcultures
Most subculture groups could be identified with a specific music genre and in
some instances music was the defining characteristic around which the group
was formed (such as with the following subcultures: Ravers, Metalheads,
Homeboys, Ethno-hippies, Goths, Technos, Rastas and Punks). In other
communities music is a key feature, but another factor would be the key
characteristic, such as with Bladers, Bikers, Skaters, Surfers, etc.).
C. Family and Youth Subcultures
In working class families, we noted that families tend to have closer
interaction and youth do not seem so intent on being different to their
parents, whereas in other communities youth may deliberately choose a certain
subculture group to reinforce their independence and even opposition to their
parents. In upper-class communities (or among youth from upper-class homes)
youth are given a lot more disposable income with which to engage in sports,
computers, entertainment, etc. So they are able to engage in a greater
diversity of pursuits - so there are possibly more subculture groups in
middle to upper-class communities.
D. Fashion and Youth Subcultures
It was noted that fashion plays a role in all subculture groups and that some
are more strongly defined by their fashion, while others take the clothing
that relates to the music or sport to define the subculture group. Working
class youth tend to place greater emphasis on fashion as it is the one way in
which they can show off what they own, whereas middle class youth have other
things to show off, such as homes, smart cars, fancy sound systems, etc.
5. The Types of Youth Subcultures
Snejina Michailova, in Exploring Subcultural Specificity in Socialist and
Postsocialist Organisations, presents the following understanding of the
types of subcultures based on their internal logic of development: (a)
Stable Subcultures - these are functional and hierarchical and age-based.
(b) Developing Subcultures - here there are two types, those that are
(i) climbing - their role is becoming more important, and those that are
(ii) climbing-down - their significance is being reduced. (c) Counter
Cultures - those that confront and contradict the official culture, also
called oppositional subcultures.
6. The Variety of Youth Subcultures
Youth workers should, through research and observation, seek to identify the
various subculture groups within the community in which the youth group
operates, to ensure that the group is able to help to meet the needs of the
different groups. In Britain in the 1980s the following groups of youth were
identified: Casuals, Rastas, Sloans, Goths, Punks and Straights. In South
Africa in the 1990s the following youth subculture groups were identified:
Socialite, Striver, Traditionalist, Independent, Uninvolved, Careful and
Acceptor. In 1995 a market research project discovered that within the Black
youth culture there are three main subcultures: the Rappers, Pantsulas and
the Italians. While within the White youth subculture only thirty percent of
youth identify with a subculture and the subcultures are far more numerous:
alternatives, Punks, Goths, Technoids, Metalheads, Homeboys, Yuppies, Hippies
and Grunge.
The following subculture groups were identified by students studying at the
Baptist Theological College in South Africa: Achievers; Intellectuals;
Belongers; Image-Conscious; Very Poor; Models; Heavy Metal Dudes; Rugby Boys;
Metalheads; Hippies; Mainstream; Average Teenager; Fashion Fanatic;
Intellectuals; Physical; Clubers; Family Centered; Workaholics; Pleasure
Seekers; Hobby Fanatics; Religious Freaks; Head Banger; Punk; Home Boys;
Skater; Gothics; Yuppies; Trendys; Rappers; Club-Hoppers; Metal Heads;
Socialites; Independents; Uninvolved; Carefuls; Socialites - Pantsulas;
Mapanga (Punks); Mapantsula; Strivers; Comrades; Preppy; Outrageous; Sexy;
Sporty; Gothic/Satanists; Nerds; Intellectual Strivers; Socialites; Jokers;
Gangsters; Independents; Traditionalists; Teenyboppers; Trendy Group; Arty
Type; Alternative Group; Drug Culture; Gay Culture; Squatters/Vagrants
Culture.
In the movie, The Breakfast Club, five teenagers are sent to
detention for eight hours on a Saturday at their school (Shermer High School,
Illinois). They are:
* Brian Johnson, a nerdy computer type, an intellectual who belongs to the
Maths club
* Clair Standish, a ‘princess' - wealthy kid who is a popular type
* Andrew Clark - a sporty type who is in the school wrestling team
* Carl - a ‘criminal' type who has had a hard upbringing, a kid with an attitude
* Alison Reynolds - a strange girl, who is secretive, uncommunicative and
dresses in black
The teacher, Richard Vernon, says that they have to write an essay that
explains who they are. During the day in detention, these five young people
who would otherwise never together socially begin to find out about each
other. They share about their home, their parents, the things that they are
able to do, and why they are in detention (they even end up sharing a dagga
joint). Very soon they are bonding together. Someone asks the questions about
whether they will still be friends when they see each other on Monday. Some
admit that they would be ashamed to greet the other person if they are with
their friends.
They get Brian to write the essay for the teacher. This is what he writes:
Dear Mr Vernon, we accept the fact that we had to sacrifice a whole Saturday in
detention, what we did was wrong, but we think you're crazy to make us write an
essay telling you who we think we are. You see us as you want to see us, in the
simplest terms, in the most convenient definitions. But what we found is that
each one of us is a brain, and an athlete, and a basket case, a princess and a
criminal. Does that answer your question? Sincerely yours, The Breakfast Club.
The movie starts and ends with this letter being read. During the opening
sequence the following quote by David Bowie is written across the screen, while
the song by Simple Minds, Don't You Forget About Me, plays in the background:
"And these children that you spit on as they try to change their world are
immune to your consultations. They're quite aware of what they're going
through."
In the opening scene where the letter is narrated by Brian, the reading ends
with: "That's how we saw ourselves at 7 o'clock this morning. We were
brainwashed."
When social workers start to research a subculture group they often find that
the members of the subculture group are less that helpful. Consider the
following quotes:
"It is highly unlikely that the members of any of the subcultures described
in this book (Reggae, Hipsters, Beats, Teddy Boys, Mods, Skin Heads and Punks)
would recognize themselves here. They are still less likely to welcome any
efforts on our part to understand them. After all, we the sociologists and
interested straights, threaten to kill with kindness the forms which we seek to
elucidate...we should hardly be surprised to find our 'sympathetic' readings of
subordinate culture are regarded by members of a subculture with just as much
indifference and contempt as the hostile labels imposed by the courts and the
press." From: Subculture: The Meaning of Style by Dick Hebdige,
Routledge, 1967.
A 16-year-old mod from South London said: "You'd really hate an adult to
understand you. That's the only thing you've got over them - the fact that you
can mystify and worry them." From: Generation X by Hamblett and
Deverson, Tandem, 1964.
III. ROCK MUSIC
Main Entry: 1rock
Pronunciation: 'räk
Function: verb
Etymology: Middle English rokken, from Old English roccian; akin
to Old High German rucken to cause to move
Date: 12th century
transitive senses
1 a : to move back and forth in or as if in a cradle b : to wash
(placer gravel) in a cradle
2 a : to cause to sway back and forth <a boat rocked by the
waves> b (1) : to cause to shake violently (2) : to
daze with or as if with a vigorous blow <a hard right rocked the
contender> (3) : to astonish or disturb greatly <the scandal
rocked the community>
intransitive senses
1 : to become moved backward and forward under often violent impact;
also : to move gently back and forth
2 : to move forward at a steady pace; also : to move
forward at a high speed <the train rocked through the
countryside>
3 : to sing, dance to, or play rock music
synonym SHAKE
- rock the boat : to do something that disturbs the equilibrium of a situation
Main Entry: 2rock
Function: noun
Usage: often attributive
Date: 1823
1 : a rocking movement
2 : popular music usually played on electronically amplified instruments
and characterized by a persistent heavily accented beat, much repetition of
simple phrases, and often country, folk, and blues elements
Main Entry: rock and roll
Function: noun
Date: 1954
: 2ROCK 2
Source: Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary
ROCK, also called ROCK AND ROLL, ROCK ROLL, or ROCK 'N' ROLL form of popular
music that emerged in the 1950s.
It is certainly arguable that by the end of the 20th century rock was the
world's dominant form of popular music. Originating in the United States in
the 1950s, it spread to English-speaking countries and across Europe in the
'60s, and by the '90s its impact was obvious globally (if in many different
local guises). Rock's commercial importance was by then reflected in the
organization of the multinational recording industry, in the sales racks of
international record retailers, and in the playlist policies of music radio
and television. If other kinds of music--classical, jazz, easy listening,
country, folk, etc.--are marketed as minority interests, rock defines the
musical mainstream. And so over the last half of the 20th century it became
the most inclusive of musical labels--everything can be "rocked"--and in
consequence the hardest to define. To answer the question What is rock? one
first has to understand where it came from and what made it possible. And to
understand rock's cultural significance one has to understand how it works
socially as well as musically.
1. What is rock?
The difficulty of definition
Dictionary definitions of rock are problematic, not least because the term has
different resonance in its British and American usages (the latter is broader
in compass). There is basic agreement that rock "is a form of music with a
strong beat," but it is difficult to be much more explicit. The Collins
Cobuild English Dictionary, based on a vast database of British usage,
suggests that "rock is a kind of music with simple tunes and a very strong beat
that is played and sung, usually loudly, by a small group of people with
electric guitars and drums," but there are so many exceptions to this
description that it is practically useless.
Legislators seeking to define rock for regulatory purposes have not done much
better. The Canadian government defined "rock and rock-oriented music" as
"characterized by a strong beat, the use of blues forms and the presence of
rock instruments such as electric guitar, electric bass, electric organ or
electric piano." This assumes that rock can be marked off from other sorts of
music formally, according to its sounds. In practice, though, the distinctions
that matter for rock fans and musicians have been ideological. Rock was
developed as a term to distinguish certain music-making and listening practices
from those associated with pop; what was at issue was less a sound than an
attitude. In 1990 British legislators defined pop music as "all kinds of music
characterized by a strong rhythmic element and a reliance on electronic
amplification for their performance." This led to strong objections from the
music industry that such a definition failed to appreciate the clear
sociological difference between pop ("instant singles-based music aimed at
teenagers") and rock ("album-based music for adults"). In pursuit of
definitional clarity, the lawmakers misunderstood what made rock music matter.
Crucial rock musicians
For lexicographers and legislators alike, the purpose of definition is to grasp
a meaning, to hold it in place, so that people can use a word correctly--for
example, to assign a track to its proper radio outlet (rock, pop, country,
jazz). The trouble is that the term rock describes an evolving musical
practice informed by a variety of nonmusical arguments (about creativity,
sincerity, commerce, and popularity). It makes more sense, then, to approach
the definition of rock historically, with examples. The following musicians
were crucial to rock's history. What do they have in common?
Elvis Presley, from Memphis, Tennessee, personified a new form of American
popular music in the mid-1950s. Rock and roll was a guitar-based sound with a
strong (if loose) beat that drew equally on African-American and white
traditions from the southern United States, on blues, church music, and
country music. Presley's rapid rise to national stardom revealed the new
cultural and economic power of both teenagers and teen-aimed media--records,
radio, television, and motion pictures.
The Beatles, from Liverpool, England (via Hamburg, Germany), personified a
new form of British popular music in the 1960s. Merseybeat was a British take
on the black and white musical mix of rock and roll: a basic lineup of lead
guitar, rhythm guitar, bass guitar, and drums (with shared vocals) provided
local live versions of American hit records of all sorts. The Beatles added
to this an artistic self-consciousness, soon writing their own songs and
using the recording studio to develop their own--rather than a commercial
producer's--musical ideas. The group's unprecedented success in the United
States ensured that rock would be an Anglo-American phenomenon.
Bob Dylan, from Hibbing, Minnesota (via New York City), personified a new
form of American music in the mid-1960s. Dylan brought together the amplified
beat of rock and roll, the star imagery of pop, the historical and political
sensibility of folk, and--through the wit, ambition, and obscurity of his
lyrics--the arrogance of urban bohemia. He gave the emerging rock scene
artistic weight (his was album, not Top 40, music) and a new account of youth
as an ideological rather than a demographic category.
Jimi Hendrix, from Seattle, Washington (via London), personified the
emergence of rock as a specific musical genre in the late 1960s. Learning his
trade as a guitarist in rhythm-and-blues bands and possessing a jazzman's
commitment to collective improvisation, he came to fame leading a trio in
London and exploring the possibilities of the amplifier as a musical
instrument in the recording studio and on the concert stage. Hendrix
established versatility and technical skill as a norm for rock musicianship
and gave shape to a new kind of event: the outdoor festival and stadium
concert, in which the noise of the audience became part of the logic of the
music.
Bob Marley from Kingston, Jamaica (via London), personified a new kind of
global popular music in the 1970s. Marley and his group, the Wailers,
combined sweet soul vocals inspired by Chicago groups such as the Impressions
with rock guitar, a reggae beat, and Rastafarian mysticism. Marley's
commercial success established Jamaica as a major source of international
talent, leaving a reggae imprint not just on Western rock but also on local
music makers in Africa, Asia, and Australia.
Madonna, from suburban Detroit, Michigan (via New York City), personified a
new sort of global teen idol in the 1980s. She combined the sounds and
technical devices of the New York City disco-club sceneNew York City disco-
club scene with the new sales and image-making opportunities offered by video
promotion--primarily by Music Television (MTV), the music-based cable
television service. As a star Madonna had it both ways: she was at once a
knowing American feminist artist and a global sales icon for the likes of
Pepsi-Cola.
Public Enemy, from New York City, personified a new sort of African-American
music in the late 1980s. Rap, the competitive use of rhyming lines spoken
over an ever-more-challenging rhythmic base, had a long history in African-
American culture; however, it came to musical prominence as part of the hip-
hop movement. Public Enemy used new digital technology to sample (use
excerpts from other recordings) and recast the urban soundscape from the
perspective of African-American youth. This was music that was at once
sharply attuned to local political conditions and resonant internationally.
By the mid-1990s rap had become an expressive medium for minority social
groups around the world.
What does this version of rock's history--from Presley to Public Enemy--
reveal? First, that rock is so broad a musical category that in practice
people organize their tastes around more focused genre labels: the young
Presley was a rockabilly, the Beatles a pop group, Dylan a folkie, Madonna a
disco diva, Marley and the Wailers a reggae act, and Public Enemy rappers.
Even Hendrix, the most straightforward rock star on this list, also has a
place in the histories of rhythm and blues and jazz. In short, while all
these musicians played a significant part in the development of rock, they
did so by using different musical instruments and textures, different melodic
and rhythmic principles, different approaches to song words and performing
conventions.
Musical eclecticism and the use of technology
Even from a musicological point of view, any account of rock has to start
with its eclecticism. Beginning with the mix of country and blues that
comprised rock and roll (rock's first incarnation), rock has been essentially
a hybrid form. African-American musics were at the centre of this mix, but
rock resulted from what white musicians, with their own folk histories and
pop conventions, did with African-American music--and with issues of race and
race relations.
Rock's musical eclecticism reflects (and is reflected in) the geographic
mobility of rock musicians, back and forth across the United States, over the
Atlantic Ocean, and throughout Europe. Presley was unique as a rock star who
did not move away from his roots; Hendrix was more typical in his
restlessness. And if rock and roll had rural origins, the rock audience was
from the start urban, an anonymous crowd seeking an idealized sense of
community and sociability in dance halls and clubs, on radio stations, and in
headphones. Rock's central appeal as a popular music has been its ability to
provide globally an intense experience of belonging, whether to a local scene
or a subculture. Rock history can thus be organized around both the sound of
cities (Philadelphia and Detroit, New York City and San Francisco, Liverpool
and Manchester) and the spread of youth cults (rock and roll, heavy metal,
punk, and grunge).
Rock is better defined, then, by its eclecticism than by reference to some
musical essence, and it is better understood in terms of its general use of
technology rather than by its use of particular instruments (such as the
guitar). Early rock-and-roll stars such as Presley and Buddy Holly depended
for their sound on engineers' trickery in the recording studio as much as
they did on their own vocal skills, and the guitar became the central rock
instrument because of its amplified rather than acoustic qualities. Rock's
history is tied up with technological shifts in the storage, retrieval, and
transmission of sounds: multitrack tape recording made possible an
experimental composition process that turned the recording studio into an
artist's studio; digital recording made possible a manipulation of sound that
shifted the boundaries between music and noise. Rock musicians pushed against
the technical limits of sound amplification and inspired the development of
new electronic instruments, such as the drum machine. Even relatively
primitive technologies, such as the double-deck turntable, were tools for new
sorts of music making in the hands of the "scratch" deejay, and one way rock
marked itself off from other popular musical forms was in its constant
pursuit of new sounds and new sound devices.
Rock and youth culture
This pursuit of the new can be linked to rock's central sociological
characteristic, its association with youth. In the 1950s and early 1960s this
was a simple market equation: rock and roll was played by young musicians for
young audiences and addressed young people's interests (quick sex and puppy
love). It was therefore dismissed by many in the music industry as a passing
novelty, "bubblegum," akin to the yo-yo or the hula hoop. But by the mid-1960s
youth had become an ideological category that referred to a particular kind
of hedonism, individualism, and modernism. Whereas youth once referred
to high-school students, it came to include college students. Moreover, rock
became multifunctional--dance and party music on the one hand, a matter of
serious attention and intimate expression on the other. As rock spread globally
this had different implications in different countries, but in general it
allowed rock to continue to define itself as youthful even as its performers
and listeners grew up and settled down. And it meant that rock's radical
claim--the suggestion that the music remained somehow against the establishment
even as it became part of it--was sustained by an adolescent irresponsibility,
a commitment to the immediate thrills of sex 'n' drugs 'n' outrage and never
mind the consequences. The politics of rock fun has its own power structure,
and it is not, perhaps, surprising that Madonna was the first woman to make a
significant splash in rock history. And she did so by focusing precisely on
rock's sexual assumptions.
Authenticity and commercialism
Madonna can be described as a rock star (and not just a disco performer or teen
idol) because she articulated rock culture's defining paradox: the belief that
this music--produced, promoted, and sold by extremely successful and
sophisticated multinational corporations--is nonetheless somehow noncommercial.
It is noncommercial not in its processes of production but in the motivations
of its makers and listeners, in terms of what, in rock, makes a piece of music
or a musician valuable. The defining term in rock ideology is authenticity.
Rock is distinguished from pop as the authentic expression of a performer's or
composer's feelings and the authentic representation of a social situation.
Rock is at once the mainstream of commercial music and a romantic art form, a
voice from the social margins. Presley's first album for RCA in 1956 was just
as carefully packaged to present him as an authentic, street-credible musician
(plucking an acoustic guitar on the album cover) as was Public Enemy's classic
It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back, issued by the CBS-backed Def
JamDef Jam in 1988; Madonna was every bit as concerned with revealing her
artifice as art in the 1980s as Dylan was in the '60s.
Rock, in summary, is not just an eclectic form musically but also a
contradictory form ideologically. In making sense of its contradictions, two
terms are critical. The first is presence. The effect of rock's musical
promiscuity, its use of technology, and its emphasis on the individual voice
is a unique sonic presence. Rock has the remarkable power both to dominate
the soundscape and to entice the listener into the performers' emotional
lives. The second is do-it-yourself (DIY). The credibility of this commercial
music's claim to be noncommercial depends on the belief that rock is pushed
up from the bottom rather than imposed from the top--hence the importance in
rock mythology of independent record companies, local hustlers, managers, and
deejays, fanzines, and pirate radiopirate radio broadcasters. Even as a
multimillion-dollar industry, rock is believed to be a music and a culture
that people make for themselves. The historical question becomes, What were
the circumstances that made such a belief possible?
2. Rock in the 1950s
The development of the new vocal pop star
If rock music evolved from 1950s rock and roll, then rock and roll itself--
which at the time seemed to spring from nowhere--evolved from developments in
American popular music that followed the marketing of the new technologies of
records, radio, motion pictures, and the electric microphone. By the 1930s
their combined effect was an increasing demand for vocal rather than
instrumental records and for singing stars such as Bing Crosby and Frank
Sinatra. Increasingly, pop songs were written to display a singer's
personality rather than a composer's skill; they had to work emotionally
through the singer's expressiveness rather than formally as a result of the
score (it was Sinatra's feelings that were heard in the songs he sang rather
than their writers'). By the early 1950s it was clear that this new kind of
vocal pop star needed simpler, more directly emotional songs than those
provided by jazz or theatre-based composers, and the big publishers began to
take note of the blues and country numbers issued on small record labels in
the American South. While the major record companies tried to meet the needs
of Hollywood, the national radio networks, and television, a system of
independent record companiesindependent record companies (such as
AtlanticAtlantic, SunSun, and ChessChess), local radio stations, and
traveling deejayslocal radio stations, and traveling deejays emerged to serve
the music markets the majors ignored: African-Americans, Southern whites,
and, eventually, youth.
Rural music in urban settings
Selling rural American musics (blues, folk, country, and gospel) had always
been the business of small rather than corporate entrepreneurs, but World War
II changed the markets for them--partly because of the hundreds of thousands
of Southerners who migrated north for work, bringing their music with them,
and partly because of the broadening cultural horizons that resulted from
military service. Rural music in urban settings became, necessarily, louder
and more aggressive (the same thing had happened to jazz in the early 1920s).
Instruments, notably the guitar, had to be amplified to cut through the
noise, and, as black dance bands got smaller (for straightforward economic
reasons), guitar, bass, and miked-up voice replaced brass and wind sections,
while keyboards and saxophone became rhythm instruments used to swell the
beat punched out by the drums. Country dance bands, emerging from 1940s jazz-
influenced western swing, made similar changes, amplifying guitars and bass,
giving the piano a rhythmic role, and playing up the personality of the
singer.
Such music--rhythm and blues and honky tonk--was developed in live performance
by traveling musicians who made their living by attracting dancers to bars,
clubs, and halls. By the late 1940s it was being recorded by independent record
companies, always on the lookout for cheap repertoire and aware of these
musicians' local pulling power. As the records were played on local radio
stations, the appeal of this music--its energy, humour, and
suggestiveness--reached white suburban teenagers who otherwise knew nothing
about it. Rhythm-and-blues record retailers, radio stations, and deejays (most
famously Alan Freed) became aware of a new market--partying teenagers--while
the relevant recording studios began to be visited by young white musicians who
wanted to make such music for themselves. The result was rock and roll, the
adoption of these rural-urban, black and white sounds by an emergent teenage
culture that came to international attention with the success of the film
Blackboard Jungle in 1956.
Marketing rock and roll
Rock and roll's impact in the 1950s reflected the spending power of young people
who, as a result of the '50s economic boom (and in contrast to the prewar Great
Depression), had unprecedented disposable income. That income was of interest
not just to record companies but to an ever-increasing range of advertisers
keen to pay for time on teen-oriented, Top 40 radio stations and for the
development of teen-aimed television showsteen-aimed television shows such as
American BandstandAmerican Bandstand. For the major record companies,
Presley's success marked less the appeal of do-it-yourself musical hybrids than
the potential of teenage idols: singers with musical material and visual images
that could be marketed on radio and television and in motion pictures and
magazines. The appeal of live rock and roll (and its predominantly black
performers) was subordinated to the manufacture of teenage pop stars (who were
almost exclusively white). Creative attention thus swung from the performers to
the record makers--that is, to the songwriters (such as those gathered in the
Brill BuildingBrill Building in New York City) and producers (such as Phil
Spector) who could guarantee the teen appeal of a record and ensure that it
would stand out on a car radio.
3. Rock in the 1960s
A black and white hybrid
Whatever the commercial forces at play (and despite the continuing industry
belief that this was pop music as transitory novelty), it became clear that
the most successful writers and producers of teenage music were themselves
young and intrigued by musical hybridity and the technological possibilities
of the recording studiotechnological possibilities of the recording studio.
In the early 1960s teenage pop ceased to sound like young adult pop. Youthful
crooners such as Frankie Avalon and Fabian were replaced in the charts by
vocal groups such as the Shirelles. A new rock-and-roll hybrid of black and
white music appeared: Spector derived the mini-dramas of girl groups such as
the Crystals and the Ronettes from the vocal rhythm-and-blues style of doo-
wop, the Beach Boys rearranged Chuck Berry for barbershop-style close
harmonies, and in Detroit Berry Gordy's Motown label drew on gospel music
(first secularized for the teenage market by Sam Cooke) for the more
rhythmically complex but equally commercial sounds of the Supremes and Martha
and the Vandellas. For the new generation of record producer, whether
Spector, the Beach Boys' Brian Wilson, or Motown's Smokey Robinson and the
team of Holland-Dozier-Holland, the commercial challenge--to make a record
that would be heard through all the other noises in teenage lives--was also
an artistic challenge. Even in this most commercial of scenes (thanks in part
to its emphasis on fashion), success depended on a creative approach to
technological DIY.
The British reaction
Rock historians tend to arrange rock's past into a recurring pattern of
emergence, appropriation, and decline. Thus, rock and roll emerged in the
mid-1950s only to be appropriated by big business (for example, Presley's
move from the Memphis label Sun to the national corporation RCA) and to
decline into teen pop; the Beatles then emerged in the mid-1960s at the front
of a British Invasion that led young Americans back to rock and roll's roots.
But this notion is misleading. One reason for the Beatles' astonishing
popularity by the end of the 1960s was precisely that they did not
distinguish between the "authenticity" of, say, Chuck Berry and the
"artifice" of the Marvelettes.
In Britain, as in the rest of Europe, rock and roll had an immediate youth
appeal--each country soon had its own Elvis Presley--but it made little
impact on national music media, as broadcasting was still largely under state
control. Local rock and rollers had to make the music onstage rather than on
record. In the United Kingdom musicians followed the skiffle group model of
the folk, jazz, and blues scenes, the only local sources of American music
making. The Beatles were only one of many provincial British groups who from
the late 1950s played American music for their friends, imitating all kinds
of hit sounds--from Berry to the Shirelles, from Carl Perkins to the Isley
Brothers--while using the basic skiffle format of rhythm section, guitar, and
shouting to be heard in cheap, claustrophobic pubs and youth clubs.
In this context a group's most important instruments were their voices--on
the one hand, individual singers (such as John Lennon and Paul McCartney)
developed a new harshness and attack; on the other hand, group voices (vocal
harmonies) had to do the decorative work provided on the original records by
producers in the studio. Either way, it was through their voices that British
beat groups, covering the same songs with the same lineup of instruments,
marked themselves off from each other, and it was through this emphasis on
voice that vocal rhythm and blues made its mark on the tastes of "mod"
culture (the "modernist" style-obsessed, consumption-driven youth culture
that developed in Britain in the 1960s). Soul singers such as Ray Charles and
Sam Cooke were the model for beat group vocals and by the mid-1960s were
joined in the British charts by more intense African-American singers such as
Aretha Franklin and Otis Redding. British guitarists were equally influenced
by this expressive ideal, and the loose rhythm guitar playing of rock and
roll and skiffle was gradually replaced by more ornate lead playing on
electric guitar as local musicians such as Eric Clapton sought to emulate
blues artists such as B.B. King. Clapton took the ideal of authentic
performance from the British jazz scene, but his pursuit of originality--his
homage to the blues originals and his search for his own guitar voice--also
reflected his art-school education (Clapton was one of many British rock
stars who engaged in music seriously while in art school). By the end of the
1960s, it was assumed that British rock groups wrote their own songs. What
had once been a matter of necessity--there was a limit to the success of
bands that played strictly cover versions, and Britain's professional
songwriters had little understanding of these new forms of music--was now a
matter of principle: self-expression onstage and in the studio was what
distinguished these "rock" acts from pop "puppets" like Cliff Richard.
(Groomed as Britain's Elvis Presley in the 1950s--moving with his band, the
Shadows, from skiffle clubsskiffle clubs to television teen variety shows--
Richard was by the end of the 1960s a family entertainer, his performing
style and material hardly even marked by rock and roll.)
Folk rock, the hippie movement, and "the rock paradox"
The peculiarity of Britain's beat boom--in which would-be pop stars such as
the Beatles turned arty while would-be blues musicians such as the Rolling
Stones turned pop--had a dramatic effect in the United States, not only on
consumers but also on musicians, on the generation who had grown up on rock
and roll but grown out of it and into more serious sounds, such as urban
folk. The Beatles' success suggested that it was possible to enjoy the
commercial, mass-cultural power of rock and roll while remaining an artist.
The immediate consequence was folk rock. Folk musicians, led by Bob Dylan,
went electric, amplified their instruments, and sharpened their beat. Dylan
in particular showed that a pop song could be both a means of social
commentary (protest) and a form of self-expression (poetry). On both the East
and West coasts, bohemia started to take an interest in youth music again. In
San Francisco, for example, folk and blues musicians, artists, and poets came
together in loose collectives (most prominently the Grateful Dead and the
Jefferson Airplane) to make acid rock as an unfolding psychedelic experience,
and rock became the musical soundtrack for a new youth culture, the hippies.
The hippie movement of the late 1960s in the United States--tied up with Vietnam
War service and anti-Vietnam War protests, the Civil Rights Movement, and
sexual liberation--fed back into the British rock scene. British beat groups
also defined their music as art, not commerce, and felt themselves to be
constrained by technology rather than markets. The Beatles made the move from
pop to rock on their 1967 album, Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band,
symbolically identifying with the new hippie era, while bands such as Pink Floyd
and Cream (Clapton's band) set new standards of musical skill and technical
imagination. This was the setting in which Hendrix became the rock musician's
rock musician. He was a model not just in his virtuosity and inventiveness as a
musician but also in his stardom and his commercial charisma. By the end of the
1960s the great paradox of rock had become apparent: rock musicians' commitment
to artistic integrity--their disdain for chart popularity--was bringing them
unprecedented wealth. Sales of rock albums and concert tickets reached levels
never before seen in popular music. And, as the new musical ideology was being
articulated in magazinesnew musical ideology was being articulated in magazines
such as Rolling Stone, so it was being commercially packaged by
emergent record companies such as Warner BrothersWarner Brothers in the United
States and IslandIsland in Britain. Rock fed both off and into hippie rebellion
(as celebrated by the Woodstock festival of 1969), and it fed both off and into
a buoyant new music business (also celebrated by Woodstock). This music and
audience were now where the money lay; the Woodstock musicians seemed to have
tapped into an insatiable demand, whether for "progressive" rock and formal
experiment, heavy metal and a bass-driven blast of high-volume blues, or
singer-songwriters and sensitive self-exploration.
4. Rock in the 1970s
Corporate rock
The 1970s began as the decade of the rock superstar. Excess became the norm
for bands such as the Rolling Stones, not just in terms of their private
wealth and well-publicized decadence but also in terms of stage and studio
effects and costs. The sheer scale of rock album sales gave musicians--and
their ever-growing entourage of managers, lawyers, and accountants--the upper
hand in negotiations with record companies, and for a moment it seemed that
the greater the artistic self-indulgence the bigger the financial return. By
the end of the decade, though, the 25-year growth in record sales had come to
a halt, and a combination of economic recession and increasing competition
for young people's leisure spending (notably from the makers of video games)
brought the music industry, by this point based on rock, its first real
crisis. The Anglo-American music market was consolidated into a shape that
has not changed much since, while new sales opportunities beyond the
established transatlantic route began to be pursued more intently.
Challenges to mainstream rock
The 1970s, in short, was the decade in which a pattern of rock formats and
functions was settled. The excesses of rock superstardom elicited both a return
to DIY rock and roll (in the roots sounds of performers such as Bruce
Springsteen and in the punk movement of British youth) and a self-consciously
camp take on rock stardom itself (in the glam rock of the likes of Roxy Music,
David Bowie, and Queen). The continuing needs of dancers were met by the disco
movement (originally shaped by the twist phenomenon in the 1960s), which was
briefly seized by the music industry as a new pop mainstream following the
success of the film Saturday Night Fever in 1977. By the early 1980s,
however, disco settled back into its own world of clubs, deejays, and recording
studios and its own crosscurrents from African-American, Latin-American, and
gay subcultures. African-American music developed in parallel to rock, drawing
on rock technology sometimes to bridge black and white markets (as with Stevie
Wonder) and sometimes to sharpen their differences (as in the case of funk).
Rock, in other words, was routinized, as both a moneymaking and a music-
making practice. This had two consequences that were to become clearer in the
1980s. First, the musical tension between the mainstream and the margins,
which had originally given rock and roll its cultural dynamism, was now
contained within rock itself. The new mainstream was personified by Elton
John, who developed a style of soul-inflected rock ballad that over the next
two decades became the dominant sound of global pop music. But the 1970s also
gave rise to a clearly "alternative" rock ideology (most militantly
articulated by British punk musicians), a music scene self-consciously
developed on independent labels using "underground" media and committed to
protecting the "essence" of rock and roll from commercial degradation. The
alternative-mainstream, authentic-fake distinction crossed all rock genres
and indicated how rock culture had come to be defined by its own
contradictions.
Second, sounds from outside the Anglo-American rock nexus began to make their
mark on it (and in unexpected ways). In the 1970s, for example, Europop began
to have an impact on the New York City dance scene via the clean, catchy
Swedish sound of Abba, the electronic machine music of Kraftwerk, and the
American-Italian collaboration (primarily in West Germany) of Donna Summer
and Giorgio MoroderGiorgio Moroder. At the same time, Marley's success in
applying a Jamaican sensibility to rock conventions meant that reggae became
a new tool for rock musicians, whether established stars such as Clapton and
the Rolling Stones' Keith Richards or young punks like the Clash, and played
a significant role (via New York City's Jamaican sound-system deejays) in the
emergence of hip-hop.
5. Rock in the 1980s and '90s
Digital technology and alternatives to adult-oriented rock
The music industry was rescued from its economic crisis by the development in
the 1980s of a new technology, digital recording. Vinyl records were replaced
by the compact disc (CD), a technological revolution that immediately had a
conservative effect. By this point the most affluent record buyers had grown
up on rock; they were encouraged to replace their records, to listen to the
same music on a superior sound system. Rock became adult music; youthful fads
continued to appear and disappear, but these were no longer seen as central
to the rock process, and, if rock's 1970s superstars could no longer match
the sales of their old records with their new releases, they continued to
sell out stadium concerts that became nostalgic rituals (most unexpectedly
for the Grateful Dead). For new white acts the industry had to turn to
alternative rock. A new pattern emerged--most successfully in the 1980s for
R.E.M. and in the '90s for Nirvana--in which independent labels, college
radio stationscollege radio stations, and local retailers developed a cult
audience for acts that were then signed and mass-marketed by a major label.
Local record companies became, in effect, research and development divisions
of the multinationals.
The radical development of digital technology occurred elsewhere, in the new
devices for sampling and manipulating sound, used by dance music engineers
who had already been exploring the rhythmic and sonic possibilities of
electronic instruments and blurring the distinctions between live and
recorded music. Over the next decade the uses of digital equipment pioneered
on the dance scene fed into all forms of rock music making. For a rap act
such as Public Enemy, what mattered was not just a new palette of "pure"
sound but also a means of putting reality--the actual voices of the powerful
and powerless--into the music. Rap, as was quickly understood by young
disaffected groups around the world, made it possible to talk back to the
media.
The global market and fragmentation
The regeneration of DIY paralleled the development of new means of global music
marketing. The 1985 Live Aid event, in which live television broadcasts of
charity concerts taking place on both sides of the Atlantic were shown
worldwide, not only put on public display the rock establishment and its
variety of sounds but also made clear television's potential as a marketing
tool. MTV, the American cable company that had adopted the Top 40 radio format
and made video clips as vital a promotional tool as singles, looked to
satellite technology to spread its message: "One world, one music." And the
most successful acts of the 1980s, Madonna and Michael Jackson (whose 1982
album, Thriller, became the best-selling album of all time by crossing
rock's internal divides), were the first video acts, using MTV brilliantly to
sell themselves as stars while being used, in turn, as global icons in the
advertising strategies of companies such as Pepsi-Cola.
The problem with this pursuit of a single market for a single music was that
rock culture was fragmenting. The 1990s had no unifying stars (the biggest
sensation, the Spice Girls, were never really taken seriously). The attempt to
market a global music was met by the rise of world music, an ever-increasing
number of voices drawing on local traditions and local concerns to absorb rock
rather than be absorbed by it. Tellingly, the biggest corporate star of the
1990s, the Quebecois Céline Dion, started out in the French-language
market. By the end of the 20th century, hybridity meant musicians playing up
divisions within rock rather than forging new alliances. In Britain the rave
scene (fueled by dance music such as house and techno, which arrived from
Chicago and Detroit via Ibiza, Spainvia Ibiza, Spain) converged with "indie"
guitar rock in a nostalgic pursuit of the rock community past that ultimately
was a fantasy. Although groups like Primal Scream and the Prodigy seemed to
contain, in themselves, 30 years of rock history, they remained on the fringes
of most people's listening. Rock had come to describe too broad a range of
sounds and expectations to be unified by anyone.
Rock as a reflection of cultural change
How, then, should rock's contribution to music history be judged? One way to
answer this is to trace rock's influences on other musics; another is to
attempt a kind of cultural audit (What is the ratio of rock masterworks to
rock dross?). But such approaches come up against the problem of definition.
Rock does not so much influence other musics as colonize them, blurring
musical boundaries. Any attempt to establish an objective rock canon is
equally doomed to failure--rock is not this sort of autonomous, rule-bound
aesthetic form.
Its cultural value must be approached from a different perspective. The
question is not How has rock influenced society? but rather How has it
reflected society? From the musician's point of view, for example, the most
important change since the 1950s has been in the division of music-making
labour. When Elvis Presley became a star, there were clear distinctions
between the work of the performer, writer, arranger, session musician, record
producer, and sound engineer. By the time Public Enemy was recording, such
distinctions had broken down from both ends: performers wrote, arranged, and
produced their own material; engineers made as significant a musical
contribution as anyone else to the creation of a recorded sound.
Technological developments--multitrack tape recorders, amplifiers,
synthesizers, and digital equipment--had changed the meaning of musical
instruments; there was no longer a clear distinction between producing a
sound and reproducing it.
From a listener's point of view, too, the distinction between music and noise
changed dramatically in the second half of the 20th century. Music became
ubiquitous, whether in public places (an accompaniment to every sort of
activity), in the home (with a radio, CD player, or cassette player in every
room), or in blurring the distinction between public and private use of music
(a Walkman, boom box, or karaoke machine). The development of the compact
disc only accelerated the process that makes music from any place and any
time permanently available. Listening to music no longer refers to a special
place or occasion but, rather, a special attention--a decision to focus on a
given sound at a given moment.
Rock is the music that has directly addressed these new conditions and kept
faith with the belief that music is a form of human conversation, even as it
is mediated by television and radio and by filmmakers and advertisers. The
rock commitment to access--to doing mass music for oneself--has survived
despite the centralization of production and the ever-increasing costs of
manufacture, promotion, and distribution. Rock remains the most democratic of
mass media--the only one in which voices from the margins of society can
still be heard out loud.
I V. ROCK SUBCULTURES
1. HIPPIE
Main Entry: hip·pie
Variant(s): or hip·py /'hi-pE/
Function: noun
Inflected Form(s): plural hippies
Etymology: 4hip + -ie
Date: 1965
: a usually young person who rejects the mores of established society (as
by dressing unconventionally or favoring communal living) and advocates a
nonviolent ethic; broadly : a long-haired unconventionally
dressed young person
- hip·pie·dom /-pE-d&m/ noun
- hip·pie·ness or hip·pi·ness /-pE-n&s/ noun
Source: Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary
Hippie, member of a youth movement of the late 1960s that was
characterized by nonviolent anarchy, concern for the environment, and rejection
of Western materialism. Also known as flower power, the hippie movement
originated in San Francisco, California. The hippies formed a politically
outspoken, antiwar, artistically prolific counterculture in North America and
Europe. Their colorful psychedelic style was inspired by drugs such as the
hallucinogen Lysergic Acid Diethylamid (LSD). This style emerged in fashion,
graphic art, and music by bands such as Love, the Grateful Dead, Jefferson
Airplane, and PinkFloyd.
2. PUNK
Main Entry: 1punk
Pronunciation: 'p&[ng]k
Function: noun
Etymology: origin unknown
Date: 1596
1 archaic : PROSTITUTE
2 [probably partly from 3punk] : NONSENSE, FOOLISHNESS
3 a : a young inexperienced person : BEGINNER, NOVICE;
especially : a young man b : a usually petty gangster,
hoodlum, or ruffian c : a youth used as a homosexual partner
4 a : PUNK ROCK b : a punk rock musician c : one who affects punk styles
Main Entry: 2punk
Function: adjective
Date: 1896
1 : very poor : INFERIOR <played a punk game>
2 : being in poor health <said that she was feeling punk>
3 a : of or relating to punk rock b : relating to or being a
style (as of dress or hair) inspired by punk rock
- punk·ish /'p&[ng]-kish/ adjective
Main Entry: 3punk
Function: noun
Etymology: perhaps alteration of spunk
Date: 1687
1 : wood so decayed as to be dry, crumbly, and useful for tinder
2 : a dry spongy substance prepared from fungi (genus Fomes) and
used to ignite fuses especially of fireworks
Main Entry: punk rock
Function: noun
Date: 1971
: rock music marked by extreme and often deliberately offensive
expressions of alienation and social discontent
- punk rocker noun
Source: Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary
PUNK also known as PUNK ROCK aggressive form of rock music that
coalesced into an international (though predominantly Anglo-American) movement
in 1975-80. Often politicized and full of vital energy beneath a sarcastic,
hostile facade, punk spread as an ideology and an aesthetic approach, becoming
an archetype of teen rebellion and alienation.
Black leather jackets adorned with shiny metal spikes and studs, combat boots,
spike multi-colored mohawks (mohawk - a strip of hair left on the top of
the head, running from front to back), slam dancing, and fast 3-chord rock and
roll; all icons of the movement know as “punk”. These are icons that defined
the punk movement in the 70’s and 80’s, from the earliest forms to the later
forms. These are what many have seen when they saw a “punk” walking down the
street.
“Punk” is a word that was originally a term for a prostitute in England, 17
century (you can find it in W. Shakespeare’s play “Measure for measure”),
then it was a jailhouse term for a submissive homosexual, and was slapped on
as a label for a generation of miscreant mid-1960’s U.S. Garage bands that
were experimenting with post-Beatles British influence and early psychedelics
. The term later expanded to include the rest of the “miscreants” that
erupted in the mid 70’s.
The punk movement emerged in the mid 1970’s. Most people disagree to just
where the punk movement started. Some say that it developed in the US in NYC,
others say it was an effort for the British youth to rebel against the
current UK government. There are some who say that it was an art form, then
there are some who believe it was a unorganized, combined effort between the
US and the UK, that eventually developed into a sort of a “punk race”.
Despite the controversy about whether the punk movement started in the US,
the UK, or some other place in the world, it is sure the entire world has
felt its force in the emergence of subcultures and its direct influence on
the music styles of today.
If it is asked who the first punk band was, and the person answering held
true to the belief that punk was born in the UK, many persons would answer
that it was the Sex Pistols. SEX PISTOLS – rock group who created the British
punk movement of the late 1970s and who, with the song "God Save the Queen,"
became a symbol of the United Kingdom's social and political turmoil. By the
summer of 1976 the Sex Pistols had attracted an avid fan base and
successfully updated the energies of the 1960s mods for the malignant teenage
mood of the '70s. Heavily stylized in their image and music, media-savvy, and
ambitious in their use of lyrics, the Sex Pistols became the leaders of a new
teenage movement - called punk by the British press - in the autumn of 1976.
Their first single, "Anarchy in the U.K.," was both a call to arms and a
state-of-the-nation address. When they used profanity on live television in
December 1976, the group became a national sensation.
I am an anti-Christ
I am an anarchist,
don't know what I want
but I know how to get it.
I wanna destroy the passers-by
'cos I wanna be anarchy.
The Sex Pistols released their second single, "God Save the Queen," in June
1977 to coincide with Queen Elizabeth II's Silver Jubilee (the 25th
anniversary of her accession to the throne). Although banned by the British
media, the single rose rapidly to number two on the charts. As "public
enemies number one," the Sex Pistols were subjected to physical violence and
harassment.
God save the Queen
the fascist regime,
they made you a moron
a potential H-bomb.
God save the Queen
she ain't no human being.
There is no future
in England's dreaming
Don't be told what you want
Don't be told what you need.
There's no future
there's no future
there's no future for you
God save the Queen
'cos tourists are money
and our figurehead
is not what she seems
Oh God save history
God save your mad parade
Oh Lord God have mercy
all crimes are paid.
When there's no future
how can there be sin
we're the flowers
in the dustbin
we're the poison
in your human machine
we're the future
you're future
God save the Queen
we mean it man
there is no future
in England's dreaming
No future
no future for you
no fufure for me
Punks formed a style to disassociate themselves from society. They refused to
dress conservatively, wearing clothing such as ripped or torn jeans, t-shirts
or button-down shirts with odd and sometimes offensive remarks labeled on
them. This clothing was sometimes held together with band patches or safety
pins, and the clothing rarely matched; such patterns as plaid and leopard
skin was a commonplace. It was not unusual to see a large amount of body
piercing and oddly crafted haircuts. The punks dressed (and still do) like
this to separate themselves from society norms.
Punks believed in separating themselves from society as much as possible;
thus the odd dress and/or rude style. Many times these punks are associated
with anarchy. Although most all punks were about anarchy, They believed that
government was evil, and that a government society could never be perfect;
the government was as far from Utopia as one could get. By the early 1980’s,
punk went underground and underwent many changes. These changes were the
formation of subcultures.
3. MOD
Main Entry: 2mod
Function: adjective
Etymology: short for modern
Date: 1964
1 : of, relating to, or being the characteristic style of 1960s British
youth culture
2 : HIP, TRENDY
Source: Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary
The Mod was a product of working-class British youth of the mid-sixties. The
popular perception of the mod was this: "Mod" meant effeminate, stuck up,
emulating the middle classes, aspiring to be competitive, snobbish. The old
image was one of neatness, of 'coolness'. The music of the Mod was strictly
black in inspiration: rhythm and blues, early soul and Tamla, Jamaican ska.
The closest thing to a Mod group was probably the Who - the music neatly
caught up the 'pilled up'. London nightlife of the mod mythology in a series
of effective anthems: 'My Generation, 'Can't Explain', 'Anyhow, Anywhere'.
The drug use of Mods was of amphetamines ('purple hearts', French blues',
Dexedrine) and pills, uppers and downers, and sleepers. Brake explains why
the Mods existed by writing "for this group there was an attempt to fill a
dreary life with the memories of hedonistic consumption during the leisure
hours...the insignificance of the work day was made up for in the glamour and
fantasy of night life." These were working class teenagers whose white-collar
office work was a drudgery that, for many, would exist for the rest of their
lives. The Mods had their “own” style of life, “own” music and “own” bands.
They were different from another fashion victims not only with their clothes
(suits, severe ties, long scarfs) but they led a secluded life, they were on
bad with the strangers. They spent endless evenings in their “own” bars and
had a great passion for scooters.
4. SKINHEAD
Main Entry: skin·head
Pronunciation: 'skin-"hed
Function: noun
Date: circa 1953
1 : a person whose hair is cut very short
2 : a usually white male belonging to any of various sometimes violent
youth gangs whose members have close-shaven hair and often espouse
white-supremacist beliefs
Source: Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary
Skinhead origins begin in Britain in the mid to late 1960's. Out of a youth
cult known as the "Mods," the rougher kids began cutting their hair close,
both to aid their fashion and prevent their hair from hindering them in
street fights. These working class kids adopted the name "Skinheads" to
separate themselves from the more dainty and less violent Mods. Huge groups
of these explosive youths would meet every Saturday at the football grounds
to support their local teams. The die hard support for a group's team often
lead to skirmishes between opposing supporters, leading to Britain's
legendary "football violence." When night swept the island, the skinheads
would dress in the finest clothes they could afford, and hit the dance halls.
It was here they danced to a new sound that was carried to Britain by
Jamaican immigrants. This music went by many names including: the ska,
jamacian blues, blue beat, rocksteady, and reggae. At these gatherings the
skinheads would dance, drink, and laugh with each other and the Jamaican
immigrants whom brought the music to Britian.
During the 1970's, there were many changes in the "typical" skinhead. For
some fashion went from looking smooth in the best clothes you could afford
with a blue-collar job, to looking like you were at home, even when you were
out. For others the disco craze of the seventies hit hard, resulting in
feathered hair, frilly pants, and those ugly seventies shoes. By the late
70's the National Front, Britain's National Socialist party, had invaded the
skinhead movement. Kids were recruited as street soldiers for NF. Since
skinheads were already a violent breed, the NF decided that if their young
recruits adopted the skinhead appearance, the might benefit from the
reputation. It was at this point that racism permeated the skinhead cult
without the consent of its members.
Also by the mid 70's punk had put the rebellion back in rock-and-roll,
opening a new avenue for street kids to express their frustrations. The
shifting mindset brought kids into the skinhead movement as yet another form
of expression. By the late 70's punk had been invaded by the colleges, and
record labels, letting down kids who truly believed in its rebellion. From
the streets came a new kind of punk rock, a type which was meant to be true
to the working class and the kids on the street. This new music was called
"Oi!" "Oi!" is short for "Hoi Palloi", latin for "Working Class", and the
name stuck. Oi! revived the breath of the working class kids. Because of Oi!
music's working class roots, the media scorned its messages unlike they had
done with the first wave of punk. With the change in music came a new kinds
of skinheads, and the gaps between the different types widened. Aside from
the National Front's skinheads, the movement had been simply a working class
struggle, rather than a right-left political struggle. With skinheads forming
their own bands, political lines began to be drawn on the basis of right-left
and even non-political politics. Politically right groups were often
associated with the National Front and had distinct racial messages. Leftist
groups looked at the working class struggle through labor politics. Non-
political groups often shunned both sides simply because they chose to be
political. The Oi! movement consumed most of the 1980's and is still alive
today.
Skinheads have spread to every part of the globe. Each country supports an
independent history of skinhead goals, values, and appearances. The
definition of "skinhead" varies from country to country, which doesn't say
too much since it also varies from city to city.
Starting in the late 80's, through present day, there has been a large
resurgence back to the "traditional" values and appearance of the 1960's
skinhead. This has occurred in Britain, America, as well as most of Europe.
This has lead to even more tension, this time between "traditional," and
"non-traditional" skins.
Influences of punk can be found in the skinhead culture. Skinheads were in
existence long before the punk movement came around, and they were in healthy
shape. The split in skinhead culture happened about the same time that the
skinheads accepted punk. On one side was the traditional skinheads, known as
“baldies”, and on the other was the racist skinheads, known as “boneheads”.
Even today there is the negative connotation that skinhead stands for racism,
which is hardly the case. But there is also a group that calls itself SHARP
s (SkinHeads Against Racial Prejudice; militantly anti-racist skinheads).
Skinheads went for a clean-cut look, thus the shaved heads, jeans that fit,
plain white t-shirts (sometimes referred to as “wife beaters”), and work boots
(“shit kickers”). Tension between the two skinhead cultures exists still today,
and an ongoing war is still going on between the white supremacist nazi punk
skinheads and the working class anti-racial skinheads.
The names of Oi! bands were sometimes cruel (Dead John Lennons,
Millions of Dead Cops).
5. GOTH
Main Entry: Goth
Pronunciation: 'gäth
Function: noun
Etymology: Middle English Gothes, Gotes (plural), partly from Old
English Gotan (plural); partly from Late Latin Gothi (plural)
Date: 14th century
: a member of a Germanic people that overran the Roman Empire in the
early centuries of the Christian era
Main Entry: Goth
Function: abbreviation
Gothic
Source: Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary
Goth emerged in the late 1970’s, branching off of the punk scene. A band by
the name of Siouxsie and the Banshees are accredited with the starting of the
Goths. Gothic music differs from punk to the effect that it eliminated the
chainsaw sound of punk and replaced it with a droning sound of guitar, bass,
and drums. The Goths also believed that society was too conservative, but
they also felt that no one accepted them, so they viewed themselves as
outcasts of society. Goths are preoccupied with introspection and
melancholia. They are inclined to speak poetically of 'beautiful deaths' and
vampiric sympathies. Theatrical as they are, goths are not (or not only)
play-acting and self-dramatizing. The Goths wear almost nothing but black,
perhaps with a little white or even red. Goth girls have a penchant for nets
and lace and complex sinister jewelry; with their long black hair, black
dresses and pasty complexions, they look positively Victorian. Boys have long
hair and often wear black leather jackets and can at times be mistaken for
heshers. Goths dye their hair black and wear black eyeliner and even black
lipstick. They usually apply white makeup to the rest of their faces. The
music they listen to also carries the name "goth" and seems to have descended
from Joy Division, but typically the vocalist uses an especially cheesy 50's
Count Dracula enunciation pattern.
Unlikely as it may seem, this movement, fostered at a London nightclub called
the Batcave in 1981, has become one of the longest-enduring youth-culture
tribes. The original Goths, named after the medieval Gothic era, were
pale-faced, black-swathed, hair-sprayed night dwellers, who worshiped imagery
religious and sacrilegious, consumptive poets, and all things spooky. Their
bands included Sex Gang Children, Specimen, and Alien Sex Fiend, post-punk doom
merchants who sang of horror-film imagery and transgressive sex. When Goth
returned to the underground in Britain, it took root in the U.S., particularly
in sunny California, where the desired air of funereal gloom was often at odds
with the participants' natural teen spirit. English bands like Bauhaus,
Siouxsie and the Banshees, and the Sisters of Mercy cast a powerful spell over
the imaginations of American night stalkers, and pop-Goth variants the Cure and
Depeche Mode filled stadiums. Further proof of the movement's mass appeal was
the success of The Crow horror movies (1994, 1996), both of which were
suffused with Goth imagery.
Goth provides a highly stylized, almost glamorous, alternative to punk fashion
for suburban rebels, as well as safe androgyny for boys. The massive popularity
of such industrial-Goth artists as Ministry, Nine Inch Nails, and Marilyn
Manson has somewhat validated the Goth crowd's outré modus vivendi,
though as industrial rock replaces heavy metal as the sound of Middle America,
Goth's dark appeal is blanched. Goth enjoyed a spate of media coverage in late
1996 thanks to such peripherally related events as the Florida "vampire
murders" of November 1996. To this day, the movement continues to replenish
itself with the fresh blood of new bands and fans.
6. INDUSTRIAL
Music genre that originated in London in 1976 when confrontational
noisemakers Throbbing Gristle founded the Industrial Records label.
Disappointed that punk rock had joined the rock 'n' roll tradition instead of
destroying it, British and American fellow travelers like Leather Nun, Monte
Cazzazza, and Cabaret Voltaire aligned themselves with Industrial Records,
creating a broad church for (usually rhythmic) experiments with noise
collage, found sounds, and extreme lyrical themes. Believing that punk's
revolution could be realized only by severing its roots in traditional rock,
industrial bands deployed noise, electronics, hypnotic machine rhythms, and
tape loops. Instead of rallying youth behind political slogans, industrial
artists preferred to "decondition" the individual listener by confronting
taboos. Key literary influences were J.G. Ballard's anatomies of aberrant
sexuality and the paranoid visions and "cut-up" collage techniques of William
S. Burroughs.The industrial subculture (touching on transgressive fiction
(Contemporary fiction-writing trend that prowls the psycho-narco-sexual
frontiers and "dysfunctional" relationships of the Marquis de Sade, William
Burroughs, and serial killers.), S/M (sadism and masochism), and piercing)
spread worldwide.
7. HARDCORE
Main Entry: hard core
Function: noun
Date: 1936
1 : a central or fundamental and usually enduring group or part: as a
: a relatively small enduring core of society marked by apparent resistance
to change or inability to escape a persistent wretched condition (as poverty or
chronic unemployment) b : a militant or fiercely loyal faction
2 usually hard·core /-"kOr, -"kor/ chiefly British
: hard material in pieces (as broken bricks or stone) used as a bottom (as
in making roads and in foundations)
Source: Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary
Following the “death” of punk in the late 1970’s was a hard and heavy form of
punk known as Hardcore. Hardcore is faster, louder, and heavier than the punk
of the 1970’s, and it gained much popularity over the early and mid 1980’s.
Typically the vocals are screamed and unintelligible, though they frequently
give voice to strong political sentiments, the bass is played with a pick and
is clear and tonal while the guitar forms a dynamic, often atonal, texture of
sound. rock and roll radio. Bands such as Black Flag, D.O.A., Circle Jerks,
Fear, Bad Brains, The Meatmen, Agent Orange and Minor Threat were the major
influences in Hardcore, and the idea of slam dancing was born in the
tradition of punks “pogo dancing”. This slam dancing, or moshing, was done in
a mosh pit and was accompanied by the occasional stage diving or crowd
surfing. The main message of Hardcore was “DIY”, or Do It Yourself.
The DIY movement was purely in the tradition of punk; punk was a form of
music that almost anyone could play, it usually involved only 3-chords and a
band could be put together cheaply. It was a not-so-expensive way for youth
to put out their message.
8. STRAIGHT EDGE
The DIY style of Hardcore gave way to other subcultures of punk, one in
particular is known as sXe, or Straight Edge. Most of the sXe credit is given
to the band Minor Threat after they released their song “Straight Edge”. The
song was an outcry against the effects of drugs, and fans of Minor Threat
started to quit using non-pharmaceutical drugs like nicotine, alcohol, and
marijuana. These Straight Edgers felt that using drugs was a sign of
weakness, and they still dressed as normal punks did, but wore anti drug
messages on their shirts. The symbol of Straight Edgers is a large X,
originally a symbol that clubs would mark on hands if the person was not old
enough to (legally) drink. Eventually Straight Edgers started to put the
marks on by themselves, even if they were over 21, to signify that they were
living drug-free. Other movements that found their way into the Hardcore DIY
scene were Green Peace, the Vegan Movement, concerts raising money for the
homeless, and the Hare Krishnas, as well as other religious groups.
9. GRUNGE
Main Entry: grunge
Pronunciation: 'gr&nj
Function: noun
Etymology: back-formation from grungy
Date: 1965
1 : one that is grungy
2 : rock music incorporating elements of punk rock and heavy metal;
also : the untidy working-class fashions typical of fans of grunge.
Source: Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary
Grunge, rock music style of the early 1990s, characterized by a thick,
abrasive, distorted guitar sound. Grunge evolved from punk in the Seattle,
Washington, area and came to prominence with the chart success of the band
Nirvana in 1991. Grunge is said to have originated as marriage between
Seattle's hesher and punk scenes. Characteristic of
most of these bands is punk rock drums and vocals, hesher hair and guitar, and
working-class clothing that is rarely washed. Lyrics frequently confront such
uncomfortable subjects as unpopularity, alienation from divorced parents,
disease, the hypocrisy and allure of religion, heroin, and raw
lust. Grunge may or may not be a useful term to describe a segment of youth
delinquency, but with historical perspective, it is best used to describe a
record company phenomenon. Grunge was a revolution, the revolution where punk
rock was decisively injected into mainstream rock and roll.
Numerous culture makers embarrassed themselves in the rush to exploit the
most vital white youth culture in years. Grunge "fashion"--the perennial
flannel shirt/combat boots/ripped jeans uniform of suburban burnouts
everywhere--was suddenly used as an exotic novelty by designers.
10. ALTERNATIVE
Main Entry: 1al·ter·na·tive
Pronunciation: ol-'t&r-n&-tiv, al-
Function: adjective
Date: 1540
1 : ALTERNATE 1
2 : offering or expressing a choice <several alternative plans>
3 : different from the usual or conventional:as a : existing or
functioning outside the established cultural, social, or economic system <
alternative newspaper> <alternative lifestyles> b :
of, or relating to, or being rock music that is regarded as an alternative to
conventional rock and is typically influenced by punk rock, hard rock, hip-hop,
or folk music
- al·ter·na·tive·ly adverb
- al·ter·na·tive·ness noun
Source: Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary
Nineties term for counterculture, often of a non-oppositional nature. Current
use of "alternative" in the music and youth-culture world originated in the
late '70s and early '80s, when it described the strain of post-punk music
cultivated by a growing, informal network of college radio stations. The word
"alternative" already had a meaning related to culture: commonly associated
with the independent, oppositional press of the late hippie era, this
counterculture label also came to denote any lifestyle outside the mainstream.
As college-rock favorites like R.E.M. and U2 became chart and stadium fixtures
in the second half of the '80s, successive waves of newer, rawer bands
inherited the "alternative" mantle. However, Nirvana's meteoric rise to the top
of the charts in 1991-92 disrupted the ecosystem: suddenly alternative was a
musical category as lucrative as hip-hop or metal, as were its
country-associated fashions. Record companies, radio, and MTV embraced the
"new" form, the Lollapalooza tours enshrined it, and marketers used it as youth
bait to sell everything from cars to soft drinks to movies. For those who
wrangled with the question "what is alternative?" there was no satisfactory
answer-the term was now in the public domain, and dissent from the mainstream
was rewarded within a fragmenting mass culture. Alternative - at
obvious variance with the mainstream, especially regarding music, lifestyle and
clothing. Clothing and the extent of facial piercings are usually the most
apparent manifestations of underlying alternative sentiments. But like every
other term that may have once had meaning, the term "alternative" has been
co-opted by mainstream commercial culture. It isn't easy to maintain a
rebellion when you find yourself winning every battle. As the name for a
musical genré, alternative is reserved for a type of college radio pop
that typically breaks free of such rock and roll rules as the major/blues
scales, the 4/4 rhythm, hi fidelity, and the need for rhyming lyrics. There is,
however, plenty of "alternative" that is hard to distinguish from classic rock.
These days much of the new rock and roll that mainstream rock stations play is
stuff that would have been considered alternative only a year or two before.
11. METAL
Main Entry: heavy metal
Function: noun
Date: 1974
: energetic and highly amplified electronic rock music having a hard beat
Source: Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary
HEAVY METAL - a typically 80's style of music that features most of the
characteristics of classic rock but with louder, more distorted guitars,
ominous and driving rhythm, and screaming vocals about subjects such as drug
use, war, religion, and problems with girlfriends. Most heavy metal bands also
write sappy love ballads that find their way into mainstream radio play lists.
Heavy metal emerged in the late 60s mostly from bands such as Led Zeppelin,
Black Sabbath and Deep Purple. Such bands tended to be "hard" in that they
succeeded in torturing parents in ways that the Beatles just couldn't, but in
most respects they were very different from one another. Later, bands like
Judas Priest and Iron Maiden added to the genre as it expanded into and
borrowed from pop. This culminated in the late 80s diversification of heavy
metal into several completely different branches. There were the blues-based
big haired glam metal bands such as Great White and Motley Crew that sang
exclusively about babes, there were the attitude bands like Guns 'n' Roses
who also sang about babes (with an emphasis on how easy they are to get into
bed), there were the dark and mysterious alternative metal bands like Nirvana
and Soundgarden that avoided glamour and sang about angst and other water
sign issues, there were the bands like Living Colour, Fishbone and Faith No
More that were either black or borrowed from rap and soul culture, and there
were the fast bands like Slayer and Metallica that sent many a parent in
search of an exorcist.
Although the origin of the term heavy metal is widely attributed to
novelist William Burroughs, its use actually dates well back into the 19th
century, when it referred to cannon or to power more generally. It also has
been used to classify certain elements or compounds, as in the phrase heavy
metal poisoning. Heavy metal appeared in the lyrics of
Steppenwolf's "Born to be Wild" (1968), and by the early 1970s rock critics
were using it to refer to a specific style of music. Heavy metal has
historically required one thing of its performers: long hair. Heavy metal
musicians and fans came under severe criticism in the 1980s. Political and
academic groups sprang up to blame the genre and its fans for causing
everything from crime and violence to despondency and suicide. But defenders of
the music pointed out that there was no evidence that heavy metal's exploration
of madness and horror caused, rather than articulated, these social ills. The
genre's lyrics and imagery have long addressed a wide range of topics, and its
music has always been more varied and virtuosic than critics like to admit.
Heavy metal fragmented into subgenres (such as lite metal, death metal, and
even Christian metal) in the 1980s.
SPEED METAL - a genré of music typified by a continuous
double-bass drum roll, high-speed distorted guitar rhythms, an almost silent
bass, and screeched or groaned vocals concerning war, death, fighting,
environmental abuse, brutality, and (in rare cases)
lust. The main problem with most speed metal bands is that they still see a
need to put guitar solos in their songs, and the guitar solos are always really
bad and last entirely too long. Speed metal seems to be a result of a marriage
between punk rock and heavy metal.
. Examples of speed metal bands: Kreator, Exodus, Nuclear Assault, Megadeth,
Prong, Pantera
THRASH METAL - speed metal with an especially strong
punk influence. While in general speed metal musicians pride themselves on
their talent and knowledge of music theory, thrash musicians laugh at such
concepts or else skillfully conceal their acquaintance with them. Examples of
thrash bands: DRI, Tool, some Suicidal Tendencies, and even some Black Flag.
V. DICTIONARY
1. Dictionary of youth slang during 1960-70’s
acid (n) LSD, a narcotic drug popular among hippies. see psychedelic, bad trip.
afro (n) haircut popular among African-americans during 1960's and '70's.
aquarian (adj.) we're not sure exactly what this means, but it has
something to do with the "Age of Aquarius" and the musical Hair.
bad scene (n) a bad situation. see scene.
bad trip (n) originally described a bad experience using drugs,
characterized by frightening hallucinations. Can be used to describe any bad
experience.
bag (n) one's main interest or purpose in life.
black light (n) a decorative light, dark blue in color to the human eye,
which makes objects or artwork in flourescent colors appear to glow.
blow your mind (v) to have an enlightening or illuminating experience.
bread (n) money.
bummer (n) bad experience.
bust (v) to arrest someone, (n) an arrest.
cat (n) a person. derived from beatnik language of the 1950's.
chick (n) a girl or woman.
commune (n) an community of people who share possessions, living
accomodations, and work (or lack thereof). Usually encompasses a farm and other
fashionable industries.
crash (v) to sleep, rest, or do nothing.
crash pad (n) a place where one sleeps, rests, or does nothing.
dig (v) like, enjoy, be interested in.
drag (n) an unfavorable situation or state of affairs.
dude (n) person, usually male.
establishment, the (n) traditional business and government institutions,
believed to stand in the way of human progress. see "system, the."
far out (adj) very interesting, good. Also an exclamation.
free love (n) love without expectations or commitment.
fuzz (n) police.
get it on (n) successfully interact with others.
groove (v) enjoy, achieve proficiency at. see "groovy."
groovy (adj) good, interesting, enjoyable.
hang out (v) to be some place, usually doing nothing, with no purpose.
hang-up (n) inhibition, usually due to morals, beliefs, or culture.
happening (adj) exciting, new, good.
heavy (adj) thought-provoking.
hippie (n) [still searching for a definition here]. hip (adj)
knowledgable of, or consistent with, the latest trends and ideas.
Iron Butterfly (n) a rock band which had one popular song, "Inna Gadda Da Vida."
lava lamp (n) a cylindrical glass container filled a semi-solid viscous
material which breaks apart and forms globules while floating in a clear fluid.
like (?) word used to fill up space in an utterance when the speaker is
unable to think of a suitable adjective to describe something. Use of this word
has also been adopted by adjective-challenged subcultures of more recent
generations.
love beads (n) colorful beads worn around the neck to symbolize love.
man (interjection) used as an exclamation to draw attention to one's
utterance. related phrase: "hey, man."
mood ring (n) a ring worn on the finger which contains a large stone, the
color of which is supposed to indicate the wearer's emotional mood. Mood rings
were a fad in the mid-1970's.
oh wow (interjection) exclamation uttered in response to new,
thought-provoking, or exciting information.
out of sight (adj) excellent, outstanding. Often used as an exclamation.
pad (n) living accomodation--house or apartment.
peace (n) absence of war.
psychedelic (adj) of or related to a mental state characterized by a
profound sense of intensified sensory perception, sometimes accompanied by
severe perceptual distortion, hallucinations, or extreme feelings of euphoria
or despair. see acid.
rap (v,n) to talk, conversation. More recently used to name a category of
music where words are spoken, rather than sung.
San Francisco (n) worldwide center of hippie activity and general weirdness.
scene (n) place, situation, or circumstances.
sock it to me (phrase) let me have it.
spaced out (adj) dazed, not alert.
split (v) to leave, depart.
square (adj) old-fashioned, not aware of new thinking and customs. (n)
one who is square.
system, the (n) the system of laws, governance, and justice. see
"establishment, the".
tie dye (v) a method of coloring clothing where the article of clothing
is tied in knots, then dying it to produce an abstract pattern. (n) an article
of clothing dyed in this manner.
trip (n) an unusual experience. (v) to have an unusual experience.
turn on (v) to become enlightened to new ways of thinking or experiencing
reality.
uptight (adj) concerned about maintaining set ways of thinking and doing things.
2. Dictionary of modern British slang
These phrases are in everyday use around most of Britain.
Phrase Meaning
---------------------------------------------------------------------
99 a popular style of ice cream, usually
ordered with a 'flake'
'A' levels exams taken at age 18
abso-bloody-lutely a more definite form of 'absolutely'
afters dessert
aggro trouble; violence
all broke up on holiday, usually from school
all of a twitter very nervous or apprehensive
aluminium aluminum
arse bottom, or ass
arse bandit a homosexual
arse over tit to fall head over heels
arse about playing around, being silly
e.g. "stop arsing about!"
artic an articulated lorry; a bick truck
Aussie an Australian
backhander a bribe
bag an unattractive or elderly woman
balderdash rubbish; nonsense
balls-up a mess; a confusion
banger (1) an old car; (2) a sausage
barking mad crazy
batty dotty; crazy
beak magistrate
beehive a tall hairstyle
bees knees something really good
beetle crusher a boot; a foot
behind bottom; buttocks
berk a stupid person
e.g. "you silly berk"
bevvy a drink
bit of fluff a pretty young single woman
bill, the police, sometimes called "the old bill"
binge a drinking bout
bin liner garbage bag
bin men garbage collectors
bint a rough girl
biro a ballpoint pen
bit of alright something highly satisfactory
black maria a police van
black pudding a sausage like food made from
- pigs blood
- oats
- fat
black sheep of the family a relative who gets into trouble with the
police
blag a robbery; to rob
blagger a robber
Blighty England
blimey ! an expression of surprise
blob a contraceptive
blotto drunk
blower telephone
blow your own trumpet to brag; to boast
blubber to cry
bobby dazzler a remarkable person or thing
bog a toilet, a washroom
bollock naked stark naked
bollocks testicles
bonce head
bonk to copulate
bonnet hood of a car
bookie betting shop owner
boot trunk of a car
boracic penniless
bosch a derogative term for germans
bovver trouble
bovver boot a heavy boot, possibly with a toe cap and laces
quite often worn by skinheads
bovver boy a hooligan; a troublemaker
brass monkey weather cold, taken from the phrase, "it's cold enough
to freeze the balls off a brass monkey"
breakdown van a tow truck
brickie a bricklayer
brill ! short form of brilliant, meaning fantastic
brolly an umbrella
browned off bored; fed up
Brummy a native of Birmingham
bubble and squeak fried cabbage and potatoes
bubbly champagne
bugger all nothing; very little
bumf toilet paper
this led to 'bumf' being used for superfluous
papers, letters etc.
bumming a fag requesting a cigarette
e.g. "Can I bum a fag from you mate ?"
Note: This has a VERY different meaning
in the U.S.
bunch of fives a fist
"button it !" "be quiet !"
caff a cafe
cake hole a person's mouth
cardy abbreviation of cardigan
champers champagne
char tea; a domestic worker
cheeky monkey a rude person
cheesed off bored; fed up
chin chin a drinking toast
chippy a fish and chip shop; a carpenter
chokey prison
chuffed very pleased or proud
clapped out worn out, broken
clappers to go very fast; to work hard
e.g. That car goes like the clappers !
e.g. I have to work like the clappers
to finish it by lunchtime !
clickety click 66 in bingo calling
clink prison
clinker somebody who is outstanding
clobber clothing
clodhopper a clumsy person
clogger a soccer player who tackles heavily
clot a fool
cloth-ears a person with a poor sense of hearing
cobblers testicles; rubbish
cock and bull a story with very little truth in it
cock up to ruin something
e.g. "it was a real cock-up"
e.g. "haved you cocked it up ?"
coffin nail a cigarette
conk nose
conkers a childrens game played with horse chestnuts
copper police man/woman
cough up to pay
crackers crazy
cracking great; fantastic
crackling a woman who is regarded as a sexual object
crate an old name for a very old plane
create to make a fuss or an angry scene
crown jewels male genitalia
crumbly an old or senile person
crumpet a desirable woman
dabs fingerprints
daft stupid
dark horse somebody who suprises others by their actions
des res Estate agents use this to describe a
"desirable residence"
dial face
dickie bow a bow tie
diddicoy a gipsy
dip a pickpocket
dishy good looking
do a runner to leave quickly avoiding punishment
doddle easy
dog's bollocks something really good
dog's breakfast a mess
donkey's breakfast a straw hat
doodah to be in a state of excitement
e.g. "He was all in a doodah !"
doolally scatter-brained; crazy
doorstep a thick sandwich
dosh money
doss house a cheap lodging house
dosser a tramp
do the dirty on to play a mean trick on
dough money
droopy drawers an untidy or sloppy person
drop a sprog have a baby
drum a house or flat
duffer a stupid person
dummy a baby's pacifier
earful to get a shouting
e.g. "My mum gave me a right earful !"
easy-peasy something very simple
earner a lucrative job or task
elevenses morning tea break
extracting the urine see "taking the piss"
fab fabulous; wonderful
face-ache a miserable looking person
fag cigarette
fag-end a cigarette butt
fairy a homosexual man
family jewels male genitalia
fanny female genitalia
fence a receiver of stolen goods
filth, the police
fishy about the gills looking the worse for drink
fizzog face
flake a stick that is made up of flaky
pieces of chocolate
flicks, the the cinema
flog to sell
footy football; soccer
fuzz, the police
gamboll a somersault done on the ground
gamp an umbrella
gentleman's gentleman a valet
Geordie a native of Newcastle
gift of the gab being very free with speech
git an insult
e.g. "You stupid git !"
give it a whirl try it out
give someone the pip to get on someone's nerves
gob mouth
gobsmacked speechless
goes like stink very fast
good nick very good condition
gooseberry a fifth wheel
goosegog a gooseberry
go to the dogs to go to ruin
grass, grasser an informant
hang about wait a moment
hell for leather very fast
hols holidays
home and dry to be safe
hush silence
inexpressibles trousers
in good fettle in good health
in the altogether nude
in the know to have inside information
in the noddy nude
jam packed very full
jar a drink, usually a pint of beer
jelly jello
jerry a chamber pot
jerry builder a builder of unsubstantial houses
Jock a scottish person
Jonah a bringer of bad luck
jumped up to be conceited
jumper sweater
keep you hair on please calm down
kick the bucket to die
kissed the Blarney Stone a person who tells tall stories
knackered tired, worn out
derived from horses being taken to the
'knackers yard'
knockers breasts
leg it ! quick lets run !
legless drunk
like a rat out of a very fast
drainpipe
load of bollocks you're talking crap
utter nonesense
loo a toilet; a washroom
Liverpudlian a native of Liverpool (also see Scouser)
lorry a truck
man in blue a policeman
marmite a spread for sandwiches
me old cock my old friend
meat and two veg. male genitalia
mind your P's and Q's to be careful; to be polite
moggy cat
mom`s the word it's a secret between you and me
can be abbreviated to "Keep mom !"
money for jam an easy job
money for old rope an easy job
mother's ruin gin
mucker mate, friend
mucky pup someone who has soiled themselves
e.g. "You mucky pup !"
mug face
mutton chops side whiskers
nancy boy an effeminate male
nark a police informer
nightie a nightdress
nick prison; to steal
e.g "Hey, my bike's been nicked !"
nick, the prison
nincompoop a fool
nipper a young or small child
nippy (1) fast, or (2) cold
e.g. (1) "that car is nippy !"
e.g. (2) "it's nippy out today"
nix nothing
none too easy very difficult
e.g. "that exam was none too easy !"
nosey parker somebody who is nosey
not bad very good
not so hot not very good, awful
old man father
old girl mother
old lady mother
one in the oven pregnant, also "a bun in the oven",
"up the plum duff" and "in the pudding club"
on spec on chance
on the nod on credit
on the razzle dressed up and looking for sex
on the tap looking for sex
on your bike! go away!
out for a duck obtained a zero score
Paddy an Irishman
paralitic to be drunk
pavement sidewalk
pictures, the the cinema
pick-me-up a tonic
pie eyed to be drunk
pigs, the police
pigs breakfast a mess
pigs ear a mess
pig in muck somebody in their element
e.g. "he is as happy as a pig in muck"
pillock an insult
pinny apron
pissed drunk
pissed off to be annoyed
e.g. "I was pissed off !"
e.g. "He really pissed me off !"
The US replace "pissed off" with "pissed" alone.
piss head somebody who is drunk quite often
plastered drunk
e.g. "He's plastered !"
play hookey to play truant
plimpsolls childrens non-laced sneakers
plod police man/woman
plonk cheap wine
e.g. "This plonk's not bad !"
plonker (1) penis, (2) fool
e.g. "you silly plonker !"
plus fours trousers
ponce a homosexual
pong a bad smell
pooh pooh to reject an idea
e.g. "He pooh pooh'd my idea !"
pools, the a weekly betting game based on the outcome
of soccer matches; run by Vernons and
Littlewoods (and possibly others)
pratt an insult
e.g. "you stupid pratt !"
preggers pregnant
pudding dessert
pull a bird meet a woman; pick up a girl
quite often shortened to 'pull'
e.g. "Did you pull ?"
pull a fast one to fool or swindle somebody
pull a pint hand pump beer into a glass
pull a stroke to outsmart
pull the other one I don't believe you
short form of "pull the other one, it has
bells on"
pull your pud to masterbate
pumps running shoes
punter a customer
purse a ladies wallet
put a sock in it to be quiet
put the anchors on to apply the brakes; to slow down
put the boot in to beat somebody up
put the kibosh on to put a stop to something
put the wind up to scare
Queer Street where you are if you don't have
any money
quiff a fancy hairstyle
randy horny
rave up a good party
readies cash
ropey flaky or dodgey
rozzer policeman
rug a wig; a toupee
rubbed the wrong way to upset somebody
salt a sailor
same to you with brass usually said in response to a derogatory
knobs on !! remark
sarnie a sandwich
scab a strike breaker
scallywag a mischevious person
scarper to run away fast, possibly avoiding
punishment
Scouser a native of Liverpool (see also Liverpudlian)
scrap a fight
scrubber a cheap or loose woman
shag to copulate
shake a leg to get a move on
shall I be mother ? shall I pour the tea ?
sheckels money
silly arse a foolish person
skivvy a domestic servant
slash to urinate
e.g. "I'm going for a slash."
smalls underwear
smart alec a clever person
snifter a drink of spirit
snog to kiss
snuff it to die
sod derogatory remark, derived from sodomy
soldiers bread cut into thin strips for dipping into
a boiled egg
so stick that in your usually said after a derogatory remark
pipe and smoke it !
sozzled drunk
spam a rather tasteless form of tinned meat
spanner a wrench
sparky an electrician
splice the main-brace to drink
spread a good meal; a feast
sprog a young child or baby, could also
mean illegitimate
spud a potato
squiffed drunk
stewed drunk
strides trousers, pants
subway an underpass
a pedestrian walkway beneath a road
swag stolen money; a thief's plunder
swing the lead a malingerer
swizz a swindle or cheat
swot somebody who studies
ta thankyou
Taffy a Welshman
ta muchly thankyou very much
Tandy Radio Shack
take French leave to leave without permission
taking the piss making fun of
tea leaf thief
terminus the end of the bus route
the smoke London
three sheets in the wind drunk
Tic Tac Man a bookmakers signaller
ticker the heart
tights pantyhose
"Time gentlemen please !" Usually said as the pub is closing,
so as to request that the patrons
finish their drinks.
tip a mess
e.g. "Your room is a tip !"
toff a posh person
tomato sauce ketchup
Tommy Rot nonsense
top sad extremely bad
torch flashlight
tosser see wanker
toss pot one who drinks too much
trainers running shoes
trollop not a nice girl
trousers pants
tube London Underground
tuck in schools it means cake, crisps,
sweets etc.
turf accountant betting shop owner
turn-ups trouser cuffs
turps turpentine
under the weather ill; sick
unmentionables underwear
vest a man's undershirt
wag a joker
wagging it to play truant
wallflower a woman who does not dance
wanger penis
wanker infers that the subject masturbates
weed a weak person
welly wanging the art of throwing wellington boots
white elephant a valuable, but useless article
willies, the nerves
willow a cricket bat
willy penis
wings fenders of a car
Winkle Pickers shoes with pointed toes
wireless a radio
wishy washy feeble; stupid
VI. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Charlie Gillett, The Sound of the City: The Rise of Rock and Roll, 2nd
ed., newly illustrated and expanded (1996),
Chapman, Robert L. American Slang. HarperPerennial, 1987. Abridged
edition of the New Dictionary of American Slang (Harper, 1986).
The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia, Third Edition Copyright © 1994, Columbia
University Press.
Dictionary of contemporary slang - Tony Thorne.
Published by Bloomsbury / London. 1997.
The Encarta World English Dictionary, published by St. Martin's Press. 1999
Flexner, Stuart Berg, and Anne H. Soukhanov. Speaking Freely: A Guided Tour
of American English from Plymouth Rock to Silicon Valley. Oxford University
Press, 1997.
Greil Marcus, Lipstick Traces: A Secret History of the Twentieth Century (1989),
Jon Savage, England's Dreaming: Sex Pistols and Punk Rock (1991)
Lighter, Jonathan E.; J. Ball; and J. O'Connor, eds. Random House Historical
Dictionary of American Slang. Random House, 1994 .
Mark Hale, HeadBangers: The Worldwide Megabook of Heavy Metal Bands (1993)
Mark Slobin, Subcultural Sounds: Micromusics of the West (1993)
The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th Edition © 1985, Britannica Corporation
The Oxford dictionary of modern slang - John Ayto / John Simpson.Published by
Oxford University Press. 1992.
Partridge, Eric. Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English. Macmillan,
1985. A classic, with 7,500 entries; first published in 1937.
Peter van der Merwe, Origins of the Popular Style (1989, reissued 1992),
Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary, © 1996, 1998 MICRA, Inc
Wentworth, Harold and Flexner, Stuart Berg. Dictionary of American Slang.
Crowell, 2d ed., 1975.
À. Êîêàðåâ “Ïàíê-ðîê îò À äî ß”, Ìîñêâà, “Ìóçûêà”, 1992
